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Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya
Section/Chapter	Sutra Sthana Chapter 1
Tetrad/Sub-section	Bheshaja Chatushka
Preceding Chapter	None
Succeeding Chapter	Apamarga Tanduliya
Other Sections	Nidana Sthana, Vimana Sthana, Sharira Sthana, Indriya Sthana, Chikitsa Sthana, Kalpa Sthana, Siddhi Sthana
Names of the authors of the chapter (Translator and commentator)	Patwardhan Kishor, Upadhyaya Wasuki

Revision as of 10:12, 8 September 2020

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Sutra Sthana Chapter 1.

Abstract

The title of Charak Samhita’s very first chapter, Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya, literally means the chapter on longevity. This is symbolic, because it implies that Ayurveda is not merely the science of life, but also a science of longevity. This chapter deliberates on the purpose of long life and health as the means of achieving the four primary instincts of human beings - virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation (purushartha chatushtaya) – by way of explaining some of the basic tenets of Ayurveda and defining its scope. The chapter introduces fundamental principles of Ayurveda, including its definition, objective, concept of three bodily (sharira) doshas and their qualities, and two mental (manasa) dosha and their treatment. The samanya(similarity) and vishesha(dissimilarity) theory, pharmaco-therapeutic aspects, classification of drugs, list of herbs and other animal products useful in purification and pacification therapies are highlighted. Through these deliberations, this chapter essentially lays the foundation for building the body of knowledge on life sciences and healthcare that Charak Samhita is known for.

Keywords: Longevity, Ayurveda, science of life, Dravya, material, Mahabhuta, Samanya, Vishesha, Guna, Karma, Rasa, Dosha, Vata, Pitta, Kapha, Rajas, Tamas, Sattva, qualities of good and bad physicians.

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Introduction

The Charak Samhita begins with a chapter detailing the means to attaining a long, healthy and happy life, explaining certain basic tenets of Ayurveda and the consequent foundational concepts necessary to build a body of knowledge. This chapter provides a description of the origin, definition, and scope of Ayurveda. It further deliberates on the critical concepts of Ayu (life) and its qualitative dimensions, and arogya (health) as a means of achieving the four fundamental instincts (virtue, wealth, gratification and emancipation) of life on this earth.

In Ayurveda, the process of scientific inquiry and creation of knowledge involves the loka (the community of people or societies at large). Within the community, it is believed that scientific knowledge is created by the interchange of information between patients, practitioners and researchers through various modes of interaction and observation. The knowledge created in this process is theorized, supported with applicable evidence and logic, and then documented systematically in the shastra(scientific scriptures). This explains the mode of Ayurvedic knowledge creation (which corresponds with the current method of scientific inquiry and knowledge creation). Once documented, the “higher levels” of scientific knowledge – or inferences - of the shastra are delivered again to the loka for public use. Thus, knowledge creation is a dynamic, iterative process involving the loka and the shastra. When this dynamic interaction stops, knowledge becomes static and is dropped back in the history and the search for new alternative knowledge continues.

The process of ayurvedavatarana (origin/emergence of Ayurveda) as described in this chapter should be viewed from this perspective, symbolic of this iterative process of creation of knowledge. It touches upon certain basic tenets of Ayurveda such as the four dimensional concept of ayu or life and its qualitative categorization into sukhayu (happy life), duhkhayu (unhappy life), hitayu (positive life in harmony with self and the surroundings), and ahitayu(negative life, with negative state of mind and in disharmony with the surroundings), reflecting on the individual as well as the social aspects of one’s life. The chapter also deals with the doctrine of samanya (similar) and vishesha (dissimilar), dravya samgraha(knowledge of physical material) attributes of physical and mental doshas, the basic causes of ill-health, the origin of rasa (taste) and its significance, the attributes of six tastes, the nature of the material world, and the whole range of ayurvedic materia medica. Overall, as one can expect from the very first chapter of any treatise, this chapter gives guidelines about important fundamental concepts of Ayurveda that are necessary to understand the whole text.

It is very important for a physician to have the full knowledge of materials used in formulating Ayurvedic drugs. For this purpose, the chapter provides a detailed taxonomy of groups of medications (or recipes), including properties and actions of each ingredient within a group. To zero in from the generic to the specific, the entire “universe” of ingredients are classified into three groups: those that are useful for maintaining good health, those that are useful for treating disorders, and finally, those that are harmful to health. The first two categories, i.e., ingredients useful for health and for treating the diseases have been described by further dividing them into various ways with categorization by three general sources viz. animal-based, plant-based, and earth/mineral-based. Plant-based ingredients are further sub-classified according to their parts used viz. fruits, roots, latex and bark, with relevant examples that are further subdivided according to their applicability in therapeutics e.g. useful for vamana (therapeutic emesis), virechana (therapeutic purgation) or basti (therapeutic enema). The specific actions of the individual ingredients of such groups which may not find place in later chapters have been described herein e.g. five types of salts and eight types of urine.

The chapter suggests that Ayurveda beginners may take the help of local people or communities living in or around forests and herders in identifying herbs. Quackery or practitioners with little or limited knowledge of plants are strongly denounced. The best physician is the one who has full knowledge of ayurvedic drugs, their pharmacology, mode of administration and their use according to the condition of the patient. Exploitation of a helpless patient by a physician is considered a sin in Ayurveda.

In summary, this first chapter of Ayurveda provides, for someone aspiring to become an Ayurvedic practitioner, a foundational course that teaches not only the basic tenets of Ayurveda, but also the foundational principles and practices for leading a long and healthy life.

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Sanskrit text, transliteration and english translation

Tattva Vimarsha / Fundamental Principles

The quest for longevity is the basic purpose of any medical science and the desire to live long is the important desire of every mankind. [verse 3]
An iterative interchange between patients, practitioners, researchers and community (Loka) members through symposiums, discussions continuously added and enriched the Shastra, or the Scientific body of knowledge, to help find the most effective formulations to alleviate diseases.
The patient seeks treatment when the disease becomes obstacle in daily routine of one’s life. [verse 6]
Four objectives of life: Health is the root to attain all four basic objectives of life i.e. Dharma (guidelines for life or virtues), Artha (Wealth). Kama (desires or enjoyments) and Moksha (emancipation). The diseases are destroyer of all this as well as harmony within an environment. [verse 15]
Three principles for knowledge of health and disease: The best ways of knowledge about health and disease are knowing hetu(causes), linga (symptomatology) and aushadha (therapeutics). [Verse 24]
Six categories of everything : Samanya (principle of similarity), vishesha (principle of distinction), guna (property), dravya (~substance), karma (action) and samavaya (inherence/ inseparable concomitance) are six basic categories of everything existing in the world.By knowing this, the tenets of the compendium can be followed and highest well-being and non-perishable life span can be attained. [verse 27-29]
Two ways for attainment of knowledge: Knowledge can be attained through nayana chakshu (literally, eyes of knowledge/wisdom, or an ability to discern through the use of intellect) and dhyana chakshu (through meditation on the subject). [Verse 17,28]
Eight divine powers after knowledge: After acquiring knowledge of Ayurveda, one gets empowered with buddhi (knowledge/intellect/wisdom), siddhi (success), smriti (memory), medha (grasping power of intellect), dhriti (restraint), kirti (fame), kshama (forbearance) and daya (kindness). [verse 39]
Definition of Ayurveda: Ayurveda deals with all aspects of life (good, bad, happy and unhappy life) and its extent.
Definition of Ayu (life) and its synonyms: Ayu means the conjunction of physical body, senses, mind and soul. It shall be sustainable and in continuum. Moreover, it shall be synchronized with other forms like sukshma sharira (subtle body). These four components function together in harmony over a range of spectrum of matter and energy. Each of these components has its own attributes merged on the two ends of the spectrum. The integrative entity of Ayu denotes life process with the atman, also referred to as jiva-atman (or the fundamental self) at the higher end and the physical body at the lowest end. The atma (or atman, as it is written sometimes) is integral to and a part of paramatma i.e. the cosmic consciousness or the supreme soul. Thus the whole creation is a unified field of consciousness (a super nonphysical energy yet to be decoded in the light of modern science). Any attempt to successfully decode this field of consciousness or energy may warrant recoding of modern science itself.
Superiority of Ayurveda over other vedas: Ayurveda is the most holistic body of knowledge of all bodies of knowledge, because it is good for present life as well as life after death of the human beings. [verse 43].
Theory of samanya and vishesha: Samanya is the principle which enables to understand similarity between objects, while vishesha is the principle which enables to understand distinction between objects. [Verse 44-45]
The three fundamental pillars of the sentient human being and the objective of Ayurveda: Mind, soul and body constitute foundation of the living being i.e. sentient purusha (living person). The objective of Ayurveda is to understand and explain all aspects of purusha. [Verse 46-47]
Basic elements:Panchamahabhuta (or the Five Elements), such as akasha (space),vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and prithvi (earth), and spiritual, spatial and temporal elements (soul, mind, time and space) are collectively considered basic elements of this universe. All the entities in the universe can be categorized into chetana (sentient/animate) and achetana (insentient/inanimate). The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of atma (soul), but the presence or absence of sense organs. Guna (basic properties/qualities) and karma (actions): Sense objects (shabda'" (sound), sparsha(touch), rupa (appearance), rasa(taste) and gandha(smell)) are five vaisheshika (specific) properties.
Guru (heavy), laghu (light), sheeta (cool), ushna (hot), snigdha (unctuous), ruksha (dry), manda (mild/slow acting), tikshna (strong/fast acting), sthira (stable/immobile), sara (unstable), mridu (soft), kathina (hard), vishada (non-slimy), pichchila (sticky), shlakshna (smooth), khara (rough), sthoola (gross), sukshma (subtle), sandra (solid), drava (liquid/fluid) are twenty samanya (general) properties.
Buddhi (knowledge) with smriti (memory), chetana (consciousness), dhriti (restraint), ahankara (ego), ichcha (inclination/desire), dwesha (aversion), sukha (comfort] , dukkha (discomfort), prayatna (effort) are properties of the atman or the Self.
Para (superior), aparatva (other than the superior/best), yukti (plan), samkhya (numeration), samyoga (combination), vibhaga (division), prithkatva (difference), parimana (measurement), samskar (processing/transformation), and abhyasa (continuous practice) are ten paradi (literally, "para" and "adi" (et cetera)), i.e., general properties . [verse 49]
The movement initiated by prayatna (effort) is called karma (action). [verse 49]
Samavaya(Inseparability) : Samavaya is the inherent property of blending of dravya (i.e., substances/elements e.g., prithvi or earth etc.) with their gunas (properties) and karma (actions).This is universal because no dravya (substance) is devoid of property. Every substance has some or the other property. [verse 50]
Dravya: Dravya is that in which the karma (action) and guna (properties) reside inherently and which is the samavayi karana (material cause) for any karya(effect). [verse 51] Any entity which fulfills this criteria can be called as a dravya. Matter, energy and force all have certain guna (properties) and karma (actions) and they are samavayi karana for the effects, so all such entities can be called as dravya.
Guna: Guna (properties) [verse 51] are inherent in a dravya. Karma (action) is also inherent in dravya. But unlike karma, gunas cannot initiate any movement on their own. The movements have to be initiated by karma.
Karma(action/effect): Action is inherent in the very phenomenon of combination/conjunction and division/disjunction , and thus, inherent in dravya as well. The act of combining or dividing is karma (action). Karma does not require anything else. [verse 52]
Karana (cause) and a definition of health: The factor responsible for action is karana (or cause), which results in a desired karya (effect or outcome), which is the end product of karma. In this verse, samanya, vishesha etc. are termed as karana (cause), and the karya (desired effect) is dhatusamya i.e. homeostasis. Dhatusamya leads to health. Therefore, such a balanced state of the body constituents itself can be a definition of good health. [verse 53]
Karya [Results to be achieved]: The objective of Ayurveda is to maintain and restore equilibrium among dhatus (the factors responsible for various physiological actions). [verse 53]
Three causes of all diseases: Misuse/abuse, avoidance and excessive use of time, intellect and sense objects constitute the threefold cause of both psychic and somatic disorders. [verse 54]
Locations for disease and pleasures: Body and mind are the locations of disorders as well as pleasures. The balanced use of time, intellect and sense objects is the cause of pleasures. Equilibrium leads to pleasures. [ verse 55]
The soul: The soul is unchangeable, is para (superior), is the cause of consciousness (in conjunction with the mind, properties of bhutas and sense organs), is eternal and is the seer who witnesses all the actions. The soul doesn’t get affected by any abnormalities. [verse 56]
Dosha: Vata, pitta and kapha are doshas associated with the body. Rajas and tamas are mental doshas. These doshas can vitiate the body and mind respectively and are responsible for diseases. [verse 57]
- Treatment of these doshas: Body-related dosha are pacified by the remedial measures of divine and rational therapeutics. The treatment for vitiated mental dosha includes knowledge of self, specific scientific knowledge, encouragement of mind, remembrance/memory of experiences and meditation/concentration. These are the principles of psychotherapy in Ayurveda. [verse 58]
- Properties of vata dosha & treatment: Vata dosha is ruksha(dry), sheeta (cool), laghu (light), sukshma (subtle), chala (mobile), vishada (non-slimy) and khara (rough) in properties and is pacified by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 59]
- Properties of pitta dosha and treatment: Pitta dosha is sneha (or, with unctuousness), ushna (hot), tikshna (strong/fast acting), drava (liquid), amla (sour), sara (unstable) and katu (pungent) and is pacified immediately by the drugs (and substances) having opposite properties. [verse 60]
- Properties of kapha dosha and treatment: The properties of kapha are guru (heavy), sheeta (cool), mrudu (soft), snigdha (unctuous), madhura (sweet), sthira (stable/immobile) and pichchila (slimy). This is subsided by (the drugs and substances having) opposite properties. [verse 61]
- Curability and incurability of diseases: Curable disorders are treated by drugs having opposite properties as mentioned above. The drugs should be administered after due considerations of three factors like desha, matra and kala. Desha means the place of birth and residence of a person. Matra (dose) should be decided as per the strength of patient, stage of disease, severity of disease and agni. In kala, the season of precipitation of disease and time of administration of drug should be considered. These factors should be considered to achieve maximum efficacy of the treatments. Treatment of incurable diseases is not advised. [verse 62]
Rasa (taste sensations): Rasa is the object of rasana (gustatory sense organ). Its basic material constituents are apa and prithvi. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to combination of other three mahabhuta like akasha, vayu and tejas. [verse 64]
In vata disorders, the food and drugs with sweet, sour and salty tastes should be used. Remaining three tastes like pungent, bitter and astringent vitiate vata dosha.
In pitta disorders, the food and drugs with astringent, sweet and bitter tastes should be used. Remaining three tastes like sour, salty and pungent vitiate pitta dosha.
In kapha disorders, those with astringent, pungent and bitter should be used. Remaining three tastes like sweet, sour and salty vitiate kapha dosha.
These tastes are useful in specific diseases because their basic constituents are opposite to the basic constituents of respective dosha. [verse 65-66]

Shadrasa(six tastes)	Panchabhautic composition	Biological impact
Shadrasa(six tastes)	Panchabhautic composition	Kapha	Pitta	Vata
Madhura/Sweet	Jala + Prithvi	⇈	⇊	⇊
Amla/ Sour	Prithvi + Agni	⇈	⇈	⇊
Lavana/ Salt	Agni + Jala	⇈	⇈	⇊
Katu /Pungent	Vayu + Agni	⇊	⇈	⇈
Tikta/Bitter	Akash + Vayu	⇊	⇊	⇈
Kashaya/Astringent	Vayu + Prithvi	⇊	⇊	⇈

All the material substances are classified into three categories: (1) Pacifiers of dosha, (2) those which vitiate dhatu and (3) those maintaining health.[Verse 67]

Vidhi Vimarsha / Applied Inferences

Threefold method of learning Ayurveda

Ayurveda can be understood completely and effectively by gaining the threefold knowledge of hetu (cause), linga (symptoms) and aushadha(remedies). Charak Samhita explains the causes, symptoms and remedies pertaining to health and diseases, and therefore should be used as the definitive source of knowledge of Ayurveda.

Six categories

A group of entities can be classified in diverse ways, based on the purpose and the criteria of classification. Enlightened with the knowledge of Ayurveda, when the sages observed the world, they realized that from the perspective of Ayurveda (for maintenance and promotion of health, and for curing diseases) all the entities in the world can be classified into six categories. These six categories are described as padartha by vaisheshika darshana. But Ayurveda terms them as karana(cause), with dhatusamya(state of equilibrium of all body constituents, i.e. health) as their desired effect. In other words, these six categories can be used to maintain or restore health. As per Sushruta Samhita the duty of a vaidya(physician) is to maintain or restore health, can be executed in three ways-

By augmenting the body constituents which are depleted, to normal level.
By depleting the body constituents which are abnormally increased, to normal level.
By maintaining the body constituents which are proportionate, in their normal proportions.

For executing all these three duties, the vaidya (Ayurvedic practitioner or physician) requires samanya which leads to increase and vishesha, which leads to decrease of existent imbalances/impurities. Therefore, they are mentioned first. Samanya and vishesha reside in dravya, guna and karma, so a vaidya needs to study them. Relationship of guna and karma with dravya is samavaya. Samavaya is responsible for existence of all the three - dravya, guna and karma. Their relationship is indicated by placing all three in continuation in that verse. Ayurveda gives more importance to gunas (properties and also qualities). So guna is mentioned first. E.g. Vacha is described as ugragandha (having strong smell).If the drug is not possessing these desired qualities, vaidya may not select that drug, instead he may select an alternative. It may appear that the concepts of samanya etc. are philosophical. But Ayurveda applies these concepts in practice. Out of these six categories, dravya, guna and karma truly exist. Samanya, vishesha and samavaya do not exist in the physical world. They exist in a metaphysical sense.

Definition of Ayurveda

Here four types of ayu are mentioned. Happy and unhappy life are more related to personal happiness or unhappiness. But there is good or righteous life and bad or sinful life also, where the person affects the harmony between his self and his surrounding. His/her acts do not impact just him or her, as an individual, but the society at large as well. There is a karmic consideration of one’s actions that could impact one’s life after death as well. Details of these are described in Sutra Sthana, Chapter 30. Ayurveda describes factors beneficial and non beneficial for all these four types of life. Ayurveda also describes ayu pramana (the span of life). This is described in two ways. In the 8th chapter of Sutra Sthana, guidelines to understand signs to predict longevity in new born babies are described. Methods like dashavidha pareeksha (ten point examination) also help in understanding the life span of a person. On the other hand, the section Indriya Sthana helps to predict or understand the circumstances leading to the death of a person in near future, i.e. when the life span comes to an end. Ayurveda also describes ayu itself i.e. definition and understanding about Ayu.

Definition of Ayu and its synonyms

Ayurveda discusses about Ayu which is conjugation of four factors, and life is not just about the body or like a machine. Besides body it also consists of indriya (sense organs), mana(mind) and atma(soul). Not just mechanical functions, but the living body consists of dynamic processes with sensations, feelings and intelligence, memory etc. in each of it’s functional units termed as paramanu (cell). The knowledge of ayu is explained by keeping such a living body in view.

Ayurveda accepts separate existence of indriya (sense organs). Indriya are made up of the five mahabhutas. Each indriya is composed of portions of all five mahabhutas, with predominance of one of them. Accepting separate existence of indriya and understanding their composition as made up of mahabhutas is a significant concept philosophically, and also having important practical applications. Each indriya operates with the help of certain organs and structures called as adhishthana (substratum). E.g. eyes, specially retina, optic nerve and the centre for vision in the brain, all can be termed as adhishthana. There is separate existence of indriya, which is very subtle and therefore invisible. Since all these are made up of mahabhutas, with specific diet and specific medicines they can be treated. This is because food and medicines(drugs) are also made up of mahabhutas. Subtle portion from food nourishes indriyas, and medicines can influence and regularise their functions. One can realise, that even the conditions pertaining to adhishthana like optic nerve degeneration are very much difficult to treat, so one can imagine about the conditions related to indriya. But with acceptance of indriya and understanding their composition by mahabhutas provides scope to treat conditions not only pertaining to adhishthana, but also indriya. Similarly accepting separate existence of mana (mind) is also significant. Because not only by correcting the higher functions of brain which are attributed to mind, but by directly acting on mind, Ayurveda provides better scope for it’s treatment. Accepting existence of atma (soul) is again very much significant. Buddhi (intelligence), smriti (memory) etc. are attributes of atma. By accepting separate existence of atma, they can be better understood and treated to improve.

Atma along with the subtle indriyas and mana when enters in the union of sperm and ovum, ayu(life) starts. Even after in vivo fertilisation of ovum with advanced procedures like ICSI, sometimes new life may not be started. As per Ayurveda, it can be understood that atma has not entered in that union. The conjugation of four factors i.e. the body and atma which enters in it with indriya and mana, continues till death. At the time of death, atma along with indriya and mana leaves the body. When atma realises that it is distinct from the body, indriya and mana, it gets moksha (emancipation).

Synonyms of Ayu(life)

Ayu is described with various synonyms. Each one of them is significant and they provide understanding about different aspects about Ayu. Its synonym, dhari (the support), indicates that as long as the conjugation of these four factors continues, the living body is protected. Any threat to the existence is counteracted by protective mechanisms like the healing of wounds. As soon as there is a disjunction of these factors, death occurs and the decomposition of body starts. Jeevitam (animation) suggests that only as long as the conjugation of these factors continues, there is liveliness, responsive and sentient nature. This is lost as soon as there is disjunction. Nityaga (the flux) suggests that this conjugation of four factors is a dynamic process, a continuum. The living body keeps on undergoing changes, at every moment. Anubandha (the link) suggests that this conjugation is continued as a link every moment. It also forms a link at its beginning point with the previous life, and at the end point, with the next life.

Superiority of Ayurveda over other vedas:

Certain branches of veda like Dhanurveda (pertaining to knowledge of archery and war technology) are beneficial for the present life. Where as certain portions like upanishada and aranyaka are beneficial for the life after death. But Ayurveda is beneficial not only for this life, but for the other life also. By providing sound health, it is beneficial for present life. With sound health only it’s possible to perform specific rituals and good acts, which may lead to better life after death. Also with sound health only it is possible to make efforts to acquire the supreme knowledge which will lead to emancipation.

Theory of samanya and vishesha:

Samanya and vishesha are pertaining to dravya, guna and karma. E.g. when a person observes a white pen, there is a process involved in this understanding. The light emitted by that pen reaches the eyes. This sensation is conducted to the centre in the brain through indriya (sense organ). This happens in the presence of mind. We know that an absent minded person may not pay attention to this pen. The mind processes the information and analyses it, based on which the buddhi (intelligence), which is an attribute of the atma (soul), takes a decision about the nature of the object and on whether it is beneficial or not. This process is called as jnanotpatti (manifestation of knowledge). When we see another white pen, the same procedure is repeated and we understand that it also a white pen. We observe two white pens, and understand that they are similar. This is refered in the verse 45 as ekatva (similarity). How do we understand this similarity? It is said that both these white pens have an inherent principle called samanya which helps us to understand similarity (samanyam ekatvakaram). When we observe a black pen, we understand the distinction between it and the white pen. It is said that both of them contained a principle vishesha due to which we understood the dissimilarity, distinction (prithaktvakrita). This is the brief essence of the principle of Samanya-vishesha. This concept is also found in vaisheshika darshana (a school of Indian philosophy). Many other schools of philosophy have discussed it, but Ayurveda has applied this concept in practice.

Continuous use of dravya, guna or karma which are similar to the body constituents, results in the increase of them. Whereas, continuous use of dissimilar dravya, guna and karma, result in the decrease of them/ e.g. eating the meat of animals causes an increase in the content of muscle tissue in the human body (dravya samanya). But not only this, eating of other food articles like masha (black gram) also results in an increase of muscle tissue. This happens because of the properties present in masha like guru, picchila, sthira etc. are similar to that of muscle tissue, although muscle tissue and black gram are different materials (guna samanya). Also, activities like rest and proper sleep induce similar properties like sthira, guru etc. which help in increase in muscle tissue (Karma samanya).
These effects on the body of dravya, guna and karma having samanya and vishesha can be exerted only when they are applied directly to the body (pravrittih ubhayasya). Also when we use any dravya, guna or karma, samanya and vishesha both come to action, with respect to different body constituents. E.g. Maricha (black pepper) decreases kapha and vata, but at the same time increases pitta. While using food or medicines, we must understand that it will be favorable to certain body constituents, but at the same time it will be unfavorable to other constituents (ubhayasya pravrittih). The effects are like double edged sword. By keeping this in mind one should make appropriate use of food or medicines.

Basic elements:

All the objects can be classified as animate and inanimate. The basis for this classification is not presence or absence of atma (soul) in specific objects. Because atma is described as vibhu (ubiquitous, i.e. present everywhere). But the presence of atma is manifested through sense organs. Therefore, presence or absence of indriya (sense organs) is taken as the base for classification of animate and inanimate objects. Sense organs here do not refer to only externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. Indriya are subtle and therefore imperceptible entities. Externally known organs like eyes, ears etc. are just their tools. E.g. plants do not exhibit external sensory organs like eyes etc., but they have all the sensations which are realised by subtle indriya present internally. It is significant to note that it was known to ancient Indians, and also to Ayurvedic physicians specially, that plants do possess sensations like photosensitivity, auditory, taste, olfactory and tactile sensation i.e. all five sensations [verse 48]

To acquire knowledge, a person interacts with the external world. For this purpose, he mainly makes use of his five senses. In other words, the vehicles of interaction between the internal and external world are the five senses. With this view point, the external world is composed of objects of our senses. In the words of Nobel laureate Sir James Jeans (in his book ‘The New Background of Science’), matter is that which is capable of originating objective sensations. Since there are five objects of senses, the worldly objects can be categorised into five groups. From where do these five categories originate? There must be five sources of origin of these fundamental elements, the five mahabhutas. Bhuta (or bhoota) means anything which exists or anything which has evolved. Since everything evolved from these five (pancha), they are referred as maha (great) bhuta(element). Mahabhutas exist in purest unconjugated, further indivisible forms termed as tanmatra in the beginning of the evolution of the universe. But eventually, they combine with each other by means of specific phenomena to form mahabhutas and then several conjugations result in formation of worldly objects. Everything in the present universe is composed of all five mahabhutas. Even the so called elementary particles are composed of them. Being so subtle they cannot be perceived physically. But their existence can be inferred by observing their functions. The theory of five mahabhutas is immensely important to understand Ayurveda. This theory is being studied presently worldwide. This would be evident from the fact that during 1990s, five international seminars were held on this concept of five mahabhutas by Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts in India, in which eminent scientists from international arena participated and presented their papers. E.g. the ex-chief of Atomic Commission of India, Dr. Raja Ramanna, presented a paper on ‘Chit-Achit and Ishwar’.
The composition of human body is studied in terms of mahabhutas. Dosha- dhatu and mala, which are the most important body constituents, are also composed of mahabhutas. Every object in the present universe is composed of mahabhutas, therefore can be used as medicine, if properly studied. The medicines therefore are administered considering their panchabhautika composition. In manufacturing of drugs also one has to understand the changes in terms of mahabhutas. Thus the concept of five mahabhutas is a core fundamental concept is applicable in every field of Ayurveda.
All the activities in the living body are possible only in the presence of atma (soul). Also they are always in relation to dik (Orientation in space) and kala (season). The concept of space-time resembles with the concept of dik-kala. Therefore atma- dik and kala are considered as nimitta karana (incidental cause) for every activity.
Guna (basic properties/qualities) and karma (actions)- Guna in Ayurveda are not studied in terms of physical or chemical properties of various objects, but in terms of their effects on the living body. E.g. a food article or a drug is called as guru(heavy) not as per its mass or weight. But by its property to augment body tissues. Ruksha (dry) is that which dessicates.
Out of the 41 guna mentioned here, shabda (sound), sparsha (touch), rupa (appearance- shape, colour, etc.), rasa (taste), gandha (smell) are termed as artha, because they are the objects of senses. They are specialised characteristics of particular mahabhutas. Guru etc. guna are in the form of 10 pairs of opposite characteristics. These are the guna present in the tissues of living body, therefore they are called as sharira (pertaining to body) guna. They are also present in the food articles and drugs. They manifest in an object, because of specific composition of mahabhutas. Therefore, they are termed as bhautika (pertaining to bhutas). Ichcha (desire), buddhi (including intellect, power of resolution, memory, awareness, sense of ego), dvesha (hatred), sukha (pleasure), dukkha (pain), and prayatna (effort) are six guna that are termed as atma guna (attributes of soul). Para and ten other properties are very much important in formulating treatment, hence termed as chikitsya guna.
Atma (soul) is ubiquitous. Prayatna (effort) is described as an attribute of atma. An action is initiated in the presence of atma. It is said that the attribute prayatna (effort) provides initiation for the action. The term karma is also used in different other sense elsewhere. E.g. it refers to Panchakarma (five specific therapies for purification of the body) and purvakarma (previous deeds of a person). To differentiate the term karma here, the word cheshtitam is used. By using the word, it is clarified that here this word is used in the sense of movements.
Samavaya (Inseparable concomitance)- Samavaya is the inherent inseparable concomitance of prithvi etc. (dravya) with their guṇas (properties) and karma (actions). This relationship is inseparable, because dravya and guna-karma evolve together. If a dravya is destroyed, guna-karma cannot exist and vice a versa. Dravya, guna-karma evolve and get destroyed, and are replaced by newer ones, but their relationship never changes. Whenever a dravya exists, it is never devoid of guna-karma. In this sense, it is said that samavaya is eternal. Out of the six categories of existants, dravya, guna and karma actually exist. But if their mutual relationship is not there, none of them can exist. Therefore, samavaya is the base of existance for everything. [ verse 50]

Dosha:

The present universe is composed of five mahabhutas. When we observe various activities and functions in the human body and the external world, it is understood that functionally, five mahabhutas form three groups. Functions of prithvi and apa are complementary to each other and they work together. Same way akasha and vayu form a group. Agni keeps balance in these two groups. In the external world and in the living body, we can classify all the activities and functions grossly in three groups. On one hand we find functions like evolution of the universe and various objects, new creations, birth in case of living beings, growth and development, augmentation of existing structures and tissues, conjunction- conglomeration and unions required for this, synthesis, anabolism, impletion, nourishment. On the other hand we observe depletion of existing structures and tissues, dissociation or disjunction, division, catabolism, dessication, reduction, destruction and annihilation of existing structures, death in case of living beings and dissolution of the universe. For all these functions various movements are required which form the third group. These three kinds of functions are termed as visarga(producing/creating), adana(reducing/taking away) and vikshepa(moving). These activities are performed by the group of prithvi- apa, agni and akasha-vayu respectively. In the external world and in the living body we find these activities are going on in a controlled and guided manner, systematically. Therefore, there must be some principles of the universe which control them. These are Soma (Chandra or Moon)- Surya (Agni, fire or Sun) and Anila (Vayu or Air). In the living body also such activities are going on in a coordinated, systematic, controlled and guided manner. The body constituents which govern them are representatives of Soma-Surya-Anila. They are called as kapha, pitta and vata respectively. They are called as the three doshas. Ayurveda studies and understands all the normal and abnormal activities in the human body in terms of the three doshas. This system of three doshas, is very important practically for each physician. A physician having average knowledge also can make use of this system for successfull treatment. While a physician having in depth knowledge can use the same system to understand minute details, due to which his treatment will become precise and therefore providing quicker and better success. The theory of three doshas i.e. Tridosha is very much important to understand Ayurveda.

Rasa [taste sensations]

Every dravya in the present universe is composed of specific mode of conjugation of all five mahabhutas. Rasa (taste) is a specialized property of apa mahabhuta. When apa mahabhuta is in tanmatra (purest unconjugated form) state, it does not possess taste. When it comes in contact with prithvi, the taste is formed. The variation in manifestation of six tastes like sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and astringent is due to combination of other three mahabhuta like akasha, vayu and tejas. [verse 64]

Although the term rasa apparently refers to six tastes like sweet, sour etc., but here the effects of the drugs with those tastes on the living body are given more importance. E.g. by saying that a particular drug is having madhura rasa, it is expected that not only that the drug will have sweet taste, but more than that it will have specific effects like nourishing body tissues, wholesome for hair etc. Any drug having such effects on the body is said to possess madhura rasa.

Four objectives of life:

What is the purpose of life? What goals is one expected to achieve by living? These questions come to the mind of any wise person. The same is discussed by various Indian and world philosophies. As per Vedic traditions, dharma (righteousness or rules to lead a virtuous life), artha (wealth), kama (desires or enjoyments), and moksha (emancipation) are the four goals of life. Fulfillment of various desires and enjoyment is a fundamental goal of any human being and comes instinctively. For this, one requires wealth. Dharma is a set of rules or guidelines for good personal life and also for the whole society. Absence of dharma would only result in anarchy and violence. Therefore, dharma is essential. All the enjoyments are momentary. Every pleasure is followed by sorrow and vice versa. So one thinks of a state of permanent bliss, totally devoid of any sorrow or pain. Therefore, the concept of moksha (emancipation) is relevant. Here it is emphasized that without sound health one cannot achieve these goals. It is further emphasized, that one has to maintain a perfect balance between dharma, artha and kama in order to attain moksha.

Classification of drugs:

Rasa, guna, veerya and vipaka are important properties present in a dravya. They can be identified by specific methods. But due to specific arrangements of mahabhutas, which causes specific transformations, a dravya is possessing unique property termed as prabhava. Mahabhutas being very subtle and unobservable with our senses, their conjugations or transformations can’t be readily understood. So prabhava is unexplicable. But it is understood based on the effects produced by it. Drugs can be classified on various parameters, based on prabhava also various classifications are possible. Here a gross classification based on three most important effects of prabhava is mentioned.

Dosha prashamana (dosha pacifying): Dosha prashamana are the drugs which bring back the equilibrium of dosha. Amalaki and durlabha pacify all the three dosha as well as correct the function of dhatu. Amalaki pacifies vata due to madhura -amla rasa and madhura vipaka, pitta due to madhura-tikta-kashaya , rasa and sheeta veerya, kapha due to katu-tikta –kashaya rasa and guna like ruksha, laghu. This explanation of the mode of action of amalaki on three doshas is true. But question arises why with the same set of properties, different actions are not possible like vitiation of kapha with madhura-amla rasa, madhura vipaka and sheeta veerya. So there must be some other factor also influencing the actions. This factor is prabhava. The drugs with doshaprashamana prabhava always only pacify the doshas and never vitiate them, whereas the drugs with dhatu pradushana prabhava always vitiate, never pacify.
Dhatu pradushana (vitiating dhatu): There are some substances which by their very nature harm the body e.g. mandaka dadhi (immature curd/yogurt), slow and acute poisons etc.
Swasthavrittahita (maintaining health): The substances which help in maintaining, promotion and preservation of the health of the healthy persons are swasthavratta hitakara. Rasayana and vajikarana as well as daily and seasonal regimens etc. are belonging to this group. Red rice, old rice, wheat, barley, green gram etc are good for daily use to maintain and promote health. The primary function of the substances under this category is to maintain the equilibrium of the dosha so that they are neither increased/aggravated nor decreased. Thus they help normal functioning of the body. [verse 67]
Ayurveda in general and Charak in particular commonly use plant origin drugs. Animal origin drugs such as milk and its products are mainly used as diet articles and often as drugs also. As per present trend only cow’s urine is used that also mixed with herbal preparations as bhavana (fortification) or to make enema preparation strong particularly to combat ama conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Classical Ayurveda does not advise to use human urine. Other substances of animal origin are rarely used except shells of aquatic animals.
Samalah indicates byproducts such as bitumen. Salt, minerals and alkaline products obtained from earth are also included in this group. Minerals and metals obtained from earth are first subjected to purification and then converting to nano particles (bhasma) by the various methods described separately for each product. The metals are subjected to anaerobic incinerating processes to convert it into bhasma which is nano form of the metal. Thus the earth-products becomes free from side effects of the gross metal and very potent and cures many diseases when administered with specific decoctions. It also reduces the bulk of doses of the herbal substances when mixed with these bhasma. (Verse 70).
Plant origin drugs are classified in four groups viz. vanaspati (direct fruiters), virudha (creepers), vanaspatya (flower-based fruiters) and aushadhi (herbs).
Vanaspati (direct fruiters): There are some plants which bear fruits without visible flowers.
Virudha (creepers): The plants which spread with branches are virudha e.g. guduchi
Vanaspatya (flower-based or flowering fruiters): The plants of this group bear first visible flowers and then fruits.
Aushadhi (herbs): The plants which die out after bearing the fruits are aushadha e.g. wheat, paddy, barley, lentils etc (Verse 71-72).
Fruits of both the types of klitaka (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) are most useful for purgation, though Sushruta mentions use of its root generally. Only autumnal fruits of hastiparini are most useful. Sushruta advises use of leaves of aragvadha (Cassia fistula Linn.) for purgation but in the present context, its fruits are mentioned because they are useful (80-86).
Ghee is the most important unctuous substance among various types of unctuous substances, because it possesses an unique quality of absorbing the properties of processed drugs without losing its own properties. Therefore ghee is the best media for processing drugs. (87-88).
Saindhva (rock salt) is very useful among all salts, but here sauvarchala (sochal salt) is listed first because of its most palatable taste. Otherwise sochal salt comes only after saindhava in order of priority (89-92).
Urine from the female species of various animals have generally been advised for therapeutic purposes because they are considered light(Charak Sutra 27/238). Some commentators ascribe heaviness to males with shukra and lightness of urine due to dissociation of female with shukra but it is not acceptable as females are not completely devoid of shukra dhatu. So in a nutshell, urine of female animals serves as efficacious in treating the many diseases. Next in order comes urine of male species. The urine of an impotent animal is considered inauspicious and thus not mentioned (93-105).
Sweetness, nourishment, unctuousness, and coolness are the general properties of the milk, but milk of some animals may differ in this regard. For instance, milk of she-camel is slightly saline in taste while she-goat is astringent. Similarly, milk of a she-camel also differs in properties as it is rough and hot. Hence the specific properties mentioned of the individual milk should also be considered in this regard (Charak Sutra 27/217-224). Milk is beneficial for mental faculties due to its specific action and also due to its general nourishing property which includes the proper growth of the mental faculties also and not the mind itself which is eternal.
Milk is beneficial for certain states or conditions of raktapitta (bleeding disorders) as it is mentioned that even if after administration of the various decoctions, stimulation of digestive power and pacification of kapha. Raktapitta not cured indicates vata predominance and in such conditions the milk of a she-goat or of a cow, boiled with five times its volume of water is advised (Charak Chikitsa 4:82-83). Thus, it is not correct to say that milk is harmful for adhoga and urdhvaga raktapitta due to laxative and kapha vitiating properties respectively. Milk is, of course, useful in raktapitta only at a certain stage (105-113).
Krishnagandha is included in the list of shodhana drugs though it has no elimination action. It seems this drug is included in the list owing to its external purification action and application as paste (116-119).
Local people such as goat-herders, sheep-herders, cow-herder and other forest dwellers are generally well versed with identification of the local herbs. Therefore, the beginner may take their help of these people for identification of the plants available in their areas. However, mere knowing the name and form of the plant is not sufficient and one must know their pharmacological properties, therapeutic actions and underlying principle of its application. Hence the best physician is the one who is well acquainted with drugs in their entirely (120-123).
To become a successful physician, it is very necessary to acquaint with identification of the drug material as well as to know detail pharmacological and therapeutic properties and actions of the drug.
Physician should use only those drugs which are well known from every aspect (pharmacological effect). The unknown drug may act as poison and kill the patient. Therefore, if a physician knows all the three aspects viz., names, forms and properties of drugs can treat the patients successfully. Hence the patient should not take medicine from pseudo-physicians and similarly a physician should not prescribe a drug which is not well known (124-133).
Correct drug and knowledgeable physician are the first two important pillars of successful treatment. Therefore, it is necessary to know the qualities of correct medicine and a good physician. The drugs having all the requisite properties and actions required for cure a particular disease is considered as the proper drug. For a good physician, it is necessary to have all the knowledge of the principles underlying the correct application of medicines. Sometimes a randomly prescribed medicine by a pseudo physician also succeed in alleviating a disease and in that case the credit is not his but it is just accidental. Thus, only that physician is best who has proficiency in the principle governing the use of drug, knows all the aspects of the medicine to select and thus has the capability of curing the diseases (134).
Ayurveda has a very scientific principle of karya-karana vada which says every action (karya) has its specific cause (karana). Therefore, on the basis of this principle, if the disease is cured, it can be said that a proper medicine having all the requisite curative properties and action has been administered. Similarly, if there is a success in curing a disease, it also implies that the physician is proficient in Ayurveda and is endowed with all the good qualities as envisaged in Khuddaka chatushpada (Charak Sutra l0/ 6) (135)
All over the world, plants are recognized by their scientific names (in Latin, mostly), and hence generally accepted Latin names of plants mentioned in this chapter are given here to facilitate their wide understanding.

Table 1: Botanical names of herbs:

abhayā (Terminalia chebula)
ajagandhā (Gynadropsis gynandra), antaḥkōṭarapuṣpī (Argyreia speciosa),
adhōguḍā (Vruddhadaaruka Ipomoea reniformis)
āragvadha (Casia fistula)
Arka (Calotropis procera)
bimbī (Coccinia indica),
dhāmārgava (Luffa cylindrica), dravantī (Fatropha glandulifera),
gavākṣi (Citrullus colocynthis),
haimavatī (Acorus calamus),
Hastidantī (Croton oblongifolius),
ikṣvāku (Lagenaria siceraria),
jīmūtaṁ (Luffa echinata),
jyōtiṣmatī (Celastrus panniculatus),
kampillaka (Mallotus philippinensis),
kr̥ṣṇagandhā (Moringa oleifera)
kr̥tavēdhanam (Luffa acutangula) klītakaṁ (Glycyrrhiza glabra),
kṣīriṇī (Mimusops hexandra)
kuṭaja (Holarrhena antidysenterica)
madanāni (Randia dumetorum), prakīryā (Caesalpinia crista),
pratyakpuṣpā (Achyanthes aspera),
pratyakśrēṇī (Baliospermum montanum),
pūtīka (Caesalpinia crista),
śaṇapuṣpī (Crotalaria verrucosa),
śaṅkhini (Canscora decussata),

The Glossary of Technical terms

References

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List of 120 chapters in Charak Samhita

Expand

Section I Sutra Sthana

Expand Section II Nidana Sthana
Jwara Nidana Raktapitta Nidana Gulma Nidana Prameha Nidana Kushtha Nidana Shosha Nidana Unmada Nidana Apasmara Nidana

Expand Section III Vimana Sthana
Rasa Vimana Trividhakukshiya Vimana Janapadodhvansaniya Vimana Trividha Roga Vishesha Vijnaniya Vimana Sroto Vimana Roganika Vimana Vyadhita Rupiya Vimana Rogabhishagjitiya Vimana

Expand Section IV Sharira Sthana
Katidhapurusha Sharira Atulyagotriya Sharira Khuddika Garbhavakranti Sharira Mahatigarbhavakranti Sharira Purusha Vichaya Sharira Sharira Vichaya Sharira Sankhya Sharira Jatisutriya Sharira

Expand Section V Indriya Sthana
Varnasvariyamindriyam Adhyaya Pushpitakamindriyam Adhyaya Parimarshaneeyamindriyam Adhyaya Indriyaneeka Purvarupeeya Kathamanasharireeya Pannarupiya Avakshiraseeya Yasyashyavanimitta Sadyomaraneeya Anujyoti Gomayachurniya

Expand

Section VI Chikitsa Sthana

Expand Section VII Kalpa Sthana
Madanakalpa Adhyaya Jimutaka Kalpa Adhyaya Ikshvaku Kalpa Adhyaya Dhamargava Kalpa Adhyaya Vatsaka Kalpa Adhyaya Kritavedhana Kalpa Adhyaya Shyamatrivrita Kalpa Adhyaya Chaturangula Kalpa Adhyaya Tilvaka Kalpa Adhyaya Sudha Kalpa Adhyaya Saptalashankhini Kalpa Adhyaya Dantidravanti Kalpa Adhyaya

Expand Section VIII Siddhi Sthana
Kalpana Siddhi Panchakarmiya Siddhi Bastisutriyam Siddhi Snehavyapat Siddhi Netrabastivyapat Siddhi Vamana Virechana Vyapat Siddhi Bastivyapat Siddhi Prasrita Yogiyam Siddhi Trimarmiya Siddhi Basti Siddhi Phalamatra Siddhi Uttar Basti Siddhi

Sections and 120 Chapters in Charak Samhita

Section I Sutra Sthana

Section II Nidana Sthana

Section III Vimana Sthana

Rasa Vimana
Trividhakukshiya Vimana
Janapadodhvansaniya Vimana
Trividha Roga Vishesha Vijnaniya Vimana
Sroto Vimana
Roganika Vimana
Vyadhita Rupiya Vimana
Rogabhishagjitiya Vimana

Section IV Sharira Sthana

Section V Indriya Sthana

Section VI Chikitsa Sthana

Section VII Kalpa Sthana

Section VIII Siddhi Sthana

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Introduction

Sanskrit text, transliteration and english translation

Hierarchy of transformation of knowledge of Ayurveda on earth

Conference on quest of longevity

List of scholars participated in the conference

Four Objectives of Life

Three principles for knowledge of Health and Disease

Six Basic Principles for direct knowledge

Six disciples of Punarvasu Atreya

Inception of Agnivesha Tantra

Definition of Ayurveda

Definition of Ayu (life) and its synonyms

Superiority of Ayurveda (over other Vedas)

Principle of Samanya(similarity) and Vishesha(difference)

The "Tripod" of Living World and the Objective of Ayurveda

Sentient and Insentient Dravya (elements)

Guna (basic properties/qualities) and Karma (action)

Inseparable Concomitance of dravya(elementary substance) and guna (properties)

Definition of Dravya (elementary substance)

Definition of Guna

Karma (action)

The Objective of this Compendium

Three Types of Causes of Diseases

Two Sites of Pleasure and Disease

The Soul

Three Sharira Dosha and two Manas Dosha

Management of dosha

Properties and pacification of dosha

General principles of management of disorders and prognosis

Rasa (taste sensations)

Group of six rasa(taste sensations)

Effect of rasa on state of dosha

Classification of dravya based on action

Classification of dravya (elementary substance) according to Source

Animal origin substances

Earth origin substances

Plant origin substances

Four types of substances from plant origin

Plant’s parts used as drugs

Groups of substances for medicinal use

Sixteen roots used for shodhana (purification)

Fruits used for shodhana (purification therapy)

Four major unctuous substances

General actions of unctuous substances

Five salts

Utility of salts

Eight important origins of urine

General properties and external uses of urine

Internal uses of urine

Properties of urine of ewe and goat

Properties of cow’s urine

Properties of urine of buffalo and elephant

Properties of urine of she-camel

Properties of urine of mare and she-donkey

Eight important origins of milk

General properties and actions of milk

General indications of milk

Pharmaceutical uses of milk

Plants with latex

Three bark-plants used as drug and their therapeutic uses

Summary of descriptions of the plants

Importance and methods of identification of plants

Limitation of knowledge of names of medicines only

Importance of complete knowledge of therapeutic actions of plants

Best physician

Denouncing of quacks

Sinful deeds about exploitation of patient

Quest to become good physician

Qualities of best drug and physician

Summary

Tattva Vimarsha / Fundamental Principles

Vidhi Vimarsha / Applied Inferences

Threefold method of learning Ayurveda

Six categories

Definition of Ayurveda

Definition of Ayu and its synonyms

Synonyms of Ayu(life)

Superiority of Ayurveda over other vedas: