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{{#seo:

{{#seo:

|title=Vajikarana Chikitsa Adhyaya

|title=[[Vajikarana]] Chikitsa Adhyaya

|titlemode=append

|titlemode=append

|keywords=Vajikarana, Shukra, Vrishya, libido, sexual dysfunctions, infertility, healthy progeny,Aphrodisiac, Ayurveda, charak samhita, Indian system of medicine.

|keywords=[[Vajikarana]], Shukra, Vrishya, libido, sexual dysfunctions, infertility, healthy progeny,Aphrodisiac, Ayurveda, charak samhita, Indian system of medicine, increase libido in ayurveda, sexual vigor, sexual vigour, sexual power, stamina

|description=Chikitsa Sthana Chapter 2. Aphrodisiac therapy, virility and treatment of sexual dysfunctions

|description=Chikitsa Sthana Chapter 2. Aphrodisiac therapy, virility and treatment of sexual dysfunctions

|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg

|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg

}}

}}

{{Infobox

{{Infobox

|title = Vajikarana Chikitsa

|title = [[Vajikarana]] Chikitsa

|label1 = Section/Chapter

|label1 = Section/Chapter

|data1 = [[Chikitsa Sthana]] Chapter 2

|data1 = [[Chikitsa Sthana]] Chapter 2

|data11 = [https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s06.003 10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s06.003]

|data11 = [https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s06.003 10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s06.003]

}}

}}

<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

<div style="text-align:justify;">''Vajikarana'' is a branch of [[Ayurveda]] which is intended to increase virility, improve quality of germinal cells as well treatment of various sexual dysfunctions. In this chapter code of conduct related to sex, dietary regime, qualities of normal sperm, factors affecting virility, qualities of sexual partner, role of mind in infertility, aphrodisiac and therapeutic formulations etc. are described. Simple and easy to prepare formulations are described in the chapter. Though these are described for males but we can apply same principles and formulations to female also for more preponderant effect. ''Vajikarana'' is generally misinterpreted as sexology. This myth is broken in this chapter by mentioning other effects of wider applicability and can be used for improving progeny and creating better world. The chapter is restricted to principles, regime and formulations. Aetiological factors, pathology of sexual dysfunctions and other aspects are mentioned in other chapters of this text.

<div style="text-align:justify;">[[Vajikarana]] is a branch of [[Ayurveda]] which is intended to increase virility, improve quality of germinal cells as well treatment of various sexual dysfunctions. In this chapter code of conduct related to sex, dietary regime, qualities of normal sperm, factors affecting virility, qualities of sexual partner, role of mind in infertility, aphrodisiac and therapeutic formulations etc. are described. Simple and easy to prepare formulations are described in the chapter. Though these are described for males but we can apply same principles and formulations to female also for more preponderant effect. [[Vajikarana]] is generally misinterpreted as sexology. This myth is broken in this chapter by mentioning other effects of wider applicability and can be used for improving progeny and creating better world. The chapter is restricted to principles, regime and formulations. Aetiological factors, pathology of sexual dysfunctions and other aspects are mentioned in other chapters of this text.

'''Keywords''': ''Vajikarana, Shukra, Vrishya'', libido, sexual dysfunctions, infertility, healthy progeny.

'''Keywords''': ''Vajikarana, Shukra, Vrishya'', libido, sexual dysfunctions, infertility, healthy progeny.

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Sexual relationships are among the most important social and biological relationships in human life. India played a significant role in the history of sex, right from writing of the first literature that treated sexual intercourse as a science. Since ancient times, India pioneered the use of sexual education through art and literature. This subject was not considered taboo in [[Ayurveda]] and it was included as separate branch ''vajikarana'' in which various aspects related to sexuality are scientifically dealt. If we see the literal meaning of ''vajikarana'', we find that this word is made up of two words – ''Vaji'' and ''Karana''. ''Vaji'' refers to horse and karana refers to power. So, ''vajikarana'' can be said to be a modality by which one can perform sexual activity for long time and frequently like a horse. But the effect of this branch is much more and helps to achieve good physique, potency, strength and complexion; it revitalizes the reproductive power; helps in getting healthy and good progeny; resolves various sexual dysfunctions like erectile dysfunction, infertility, premature ejaculations etc. Hence it can be said that subject is concerned with aphrodisiacs, virility and improving health of progeny.

Sexual relationships are among the most important social and biological relationships in human life. India played a significant role in the history of sex, right from writing of the first literature that treated sexual intercourse as a science. Since ancient times, India pioneered the use of sexual education through art and literature. This subject was not considered taboo in [[Ayurveda]] and it was included as separate branch [[Vajikarana]] in which various aspects related to sexuality are scientifically dealt. If we see the literal meaning of [[Vajikarana]], we find that this word is made up of two words – ''Vaji'' and ''Karana''. ''Vaji'' refers to horse and karana refers to power. So, [[Vajikarana]] can be said to be a modality by which one can perform sexual activity for long time and frequently like a horse. But the effect of this branch is much more and helps to achieve good physique, potency, strength and complexion; it revitalizes the reproductive power; helps in getting healthy and good progeny; resolves various sexual dysfunctions like erectile dysfunction, infertility, premature ejaculations etc. Hence it can be said that subject is concerned with aphrodisiacs, virility and improving health of progeny.

Literature related to ''vajikarana'' is present in all the three great treatises which show that this subject was considered paramount for betterment of humans. In [[Charak Samhita]] it is placed before describing treatment of various diseases and in ''Sushruta Samhita'', it is described after discussion of disease treatment. In ''Ashtanga'' it is mentioned in ''Uttara Sthana'' and is last chapter of this text. The order of placement depends upon basic theme of a text. Charak has given prime importance to promotion and preservation of health, whereas Sushruta and Vagbhata emphasized upon the treatment of diseases. This shows with time, Ayurvedic concept of promotion and prevention of health became less important in comparison to disease management.  

Literature related to [[Vajikarana]] is present in all the three great treatises which show that this subject was considered paramount for betterment of humans. In [[Charak Samhita]] it is placed before describing treatment of various diseases and in ''Sushruta Samhita'', it is described after discussion of disease treatment. In ''Ashtanga'' it is mentioned in ''Uttara Sthana'' and is last chapter of this text. The order of placement depends upon basic theme of a text. Charak has given prime importance to promotion and preservation of health, whereas Sushruta and Vagbhata emphasized upon the treatment of diseases. This shows with time, Ayurvedic concept of promotion and prevention of health became less important in comparison to disease management.  

[[Vajikarana]] is divided in four sections - ''Samyoga Sharamooliya'', ''Asikti Kshirika, Mashaparnabhritiya'' and ''Pumana Jata Baladika''. If we analyze the name of these sub-sections we will find that out of four, name of three sections (''Samyoga Sharamooliya, Asikti Kshirika, Mashaparnabhritiya'') are based on the first formulation described. Last section is named to give emphasis on their effect. The name of four sub-sections or ''pada'', itself suggests that in [[Vajikarana]] chapter, accentuation is given more to formulations. On analyzing these formulations one interesting fact which comes out is that out of 50 formulations mentioned very few can be considered as therapeutic preparations. Only four ''gutika'' or ''vati'' (tablets) are mentioned whereas seven ''mamsarasa'' (meat soup), ten types of milk preparations, four types of eggs, six types of ''pupalika, audana, payasa, rasala'' (different rice and milk preparations), etc. are given. Most of them are common dietary preparations included in normal diet and can be easily prepared. While stating difference in ''rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'', it is stated that ''vajikarana'' should be administered regularly to an individual.  

[[Vajikarana]] is divided in four sections - ''Samyoga Sharamooliya'', ''Asikti Kshirika, Mashaparnabhritiya'' and ''Pumana Jata Baladika''. If we analyze the name of these sub-sections we will find that out of four, name of three sections (''Samyoga Sharamooliya, Asikti Kshirika, Mashaparnabhritiya'') are based on the first formulation described. Last section is named to give emphasis on their effect. The name of four sub-sections or ''pada'', itself suggests that in [[Vajikarana]] chapter, accentuation is given more to formulations. On analyzing these formulations one interesting fact which comes out is that out of 50 formulations mentioned very few can be considered as therapeutic preparations. Only four ''gutika'' or ''vati'' (tablets) are mentioned whereas seven ''mamsarasa'' (meat soup), ten types of milk preparations, four types of eggs, six types of ''pupalika, audana, payasa, rasala'' (different rice and milk preparations), etc. are given. Most of them are common dietary preparations included in normal diet and can be easily prepared. While stating difference in ''rasayana'' and [[Vajikarana]], it is stated that [[Vajikarana]] should be administered regularly to an individual.  

[[Ayurveda]] considers ''brahmacharya'' as one of the three ''upastambha'' or pillars of life. It refers to a certain code of conduct related to sexual life. It is said that sexual activity should be neither practiced as complete celibacy nor excessive indulgence should be done as both will have detrimental effect on body as well as mind. It is recommended that the person below 17 years of age and more than 70 years of age should not consume ''vajikarana'' preparations. These preparations have to be consumed by ''Jitendriya Purusha'' or man who has control on his senses and desires. If ''vajikarana'' preparations are consumed by a man who has lost control over his senses and desire, he may prove harmful to society. Excessive coitus leads to ''shosha'' or loss of ''dhatus'' and suppression of sexual desire leads to impotency. Rules regarding coitus frequency, time, pattern changes due to seasonal variation, pre and post coitus preparations etc. are described at different places in ''Samhita''. Before administration of ''vajikarana'' therapy purification should be done so that vitiated ''doshas'' and toxins are removed from the body and blocked channels are opened. This leads to increased bio-availability of ''vajikarana'' drugs for beneficial results. ''Vajikarana'' treatment benefits include increased sexual performance, improving health of future progeny as well as treatment of many sexual disorders like infertility, erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation.  

[[Ayurveda]] considers ''brahmacharya'' as one of the three ''upastambha'' or pillars of life. It refers to a certain code of conduct related to sexual life. It is said that sexual activity should be neither practiced as complete celibacy nor excessive indulgence should be done as both will have detrimental effect on body as well as mind. It is recommended that the person below 17 years of age and more than 70 years of age should not consume [[Vajikarana]] preparations. These preparations have to be consumed by ''Jitendriya Purusha'' or man who has control on his senses and desires. If [[Vajikarana]] preparations are consumed by a man who has lost control over his senses and desire, he may prove harmful to society. Excessive coitus leads to ''shosha'' or loss of ''dhatus'' and suppression of sexual desire leads to impotency. Rules regarding coitus frequency, time, pattern changes due to seasonal variation, pre and post coitus preparations etc. are described at different places in ''Samhita''. Before administration of [[Vajikarana]] therapy purification should be done so that vitiated ''doshas'' and toxins are removed from the body and blocked channels are opened. This leads to increased bio-availability of [[Vajikarana]] drugs for beneficial results. [[Vajikarana]] treatment benefits include increased sexual performance, improving health of future progeny as well as treatment of many sexual disorders like infertility, erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation.  

[[Ayurveda]] has given immense importance to women in relation to sexual activity. Woman has been referred as ''kshetra'' or medium in which seed (or sperm) is implanted and fetal growth and development takes place. To get healthy progeny, woman should have certain qualities like she must be from different clan, physically and mentally salubrious and she should be pure (she should have taken post menstrual bath etc.). Such claims are still valid as it is seen that marriages in blood relatives or in same clan have more preponderance of genetic disorders. Chance of having healthy progeny is influenced by the mental state of partners. In ancient times, society was male dominant and females were not given equivalent status & rights like their male counterparts. At many places, social beliefs and rituals prevalent at that time has affected Ayurvedic literature. In ''vajikarana'' also most of the descriptions are related to males only. Rules, formulations, code of conduct etc. mentioned apply to females also and so ''vajikarana'' principles and formulations should not be restricted to males only and should be administered to females also.

[[Ayurveda]] has given immense importance to women in relation to sexual activity. Woman has been referred as ''kshetra'' or medium in which seed (or sperm) is implanted and fetal growth and development takes place. To get healthy progeny, woman should have certain qualities like she must be from different clan, physically and mentally salubrious and she should be pure (she should have taken post menstrual bath etc.). Such claims are still valid as it is seen that marriages in blood relatives or in same clan have more preponderance of genetic disorders. Chance of having healthy progeny is influenced by the mental state of partners. In ancient times, society was male dominant and females were not given equivalent status & rights like their male counterparts. At many places, social beliefs and rituals prevalent at that time has affected Ayurvedic literature. In [[Vajikarana]] also most of the descriptions are related to males only. Rules, formulations, code of conduct etc. mentioned apply to females also and so [[Vajikarana]] principles and formulations should not be restricted to males only and should be administered to females also.

It can be stated that ''vajikarana'' is the special branch of [[Ayurveda]] which improves the reproductive system and enhances sexual function. It deals with aphrodisiacs, virility and improving health of progeny. The principles described can provide solution to increasing sexual dysfunctions and declining fecundity. Scientific research is needed in the field of ''vajikarana'' therapies.

It can be stated that [[Vajikarana]] is the special branch of [[Ayurveda]] which improves the reproductive system and enhances sexual function. It deals with aphrodisiacs, virility and improving health of progeny. The principles described can provide solution to increasing sexual dysfunctions and declining fecundity. Scientific research is needed in the field of [[Vajikarana]] therapies.

</div>

</div>

Now we shall expound the first quarter section entitled ''Samyoga Sharamooliya'' on the virilification. Thus, said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

Now we shall expound the first quarter section entitled ''Samyoga Sharamooliya'' on the virilification. Thus, said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

==== Importance of ''vajikarana'' and woman as the best for virilification ====

==== Importance of [[Vajikarana]] and woman as the best for virilification ====

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<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

The person, who is healthy and desirous of a child, should enter in to sexual intercourse with a woman who belongs to a different clan, who is free from diseases, who is sexually excited, cheerful and who has taken her post menstrual purifacatory bath. [8-15]

The person, who is healthy and desirous of a child, should enter in to sexual intercourse with a woman who belongs to a different clan, who is free from diseases, who is sexually excited, cheerful and who has taken her post menstrual purifacatory bath. [8-15]

</div>

</div>

==== Disregard of childless person and benefits of ''vajikarana'' ====

==== Disregard of childless person and benefits of [[Vajikarana]] ====

<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

Now we shall expound the third section "Mashaparnabhritiya" on the virilification. Thus said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

Now we shall expound the third section "Mashaparnabhritiya" on the virilification. Thus said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

==== Specific cow’s milk for ''vajikarana'' ====

==== Specific cow’s milk for [[Vajikarana]] ====

<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

The semen which is thick, sweet, unctuous, without any putrid smell, heavy, viscid, white in color, and abundant in quantity, invariably helps in procreation. This is undoubtful about the semen.[50]

The semen which is thick, sweet, unctuous, without any putrid smell, heavy, viscid, white in color, and abundant in quantity, invariably helps in procreation. This is undoubtful about the semen.[50]

</div>

</div>

==== ''Vajikarana'' ====

==== [[Vajikarana]] ====

<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed">

##Similar pharmacological function of drugs.  

##Similar pharmacological function of drugs.  

#The male and female partners shall be physically and psychologically able to have pleasant coitus.  

#The male and female partners shall be physically and psychologically able to have pleasant coitus.  

*''Vajikarana'' drugs besides helping get good progeny and pleasure is useful in living healthy and long life.

*[[Vajikarana]] drugs besides helping get good progeny and pleasure is useful in living healthy and long life.

*For copulation, the ''shukra'' should possess qualities such as thickness, sweetness, unctuousness, without any putrid smell, heavyness, viscidity, white in colour, and abundant in quantity. This invariably helps in procreation.

*For copulation, the ''shukra'' should possess qualities such as thickness, sweetness, unctuousness, without any putrid smell, heavyness, viscidity, white in colour, and abundant in quantity. This invariably helps in procreation.

*Mind plays a great role in ''vajikarana''. It is important to have a pleasant mind for proper sexual satisfaction. All those items which lead to pleasure increase virility.  

*Mind plays a great role in [[Vajikarana]]. It is important to have a pleasant mind for proper sexual satisfaction. All those items which lead to pleasure increase virility.  

*Sexual act should not be done before age16 and after age 70.

*Sexual act should not be done before age16 and after age 70.

== Vidhi Vimarsha (Applied Inferences ) ==

== Vidhi Vimarsha (Applied Inferences ) ==

''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' therapies have common aim to provide positive health and prevention of diseases by increasing vigor of healthy person and so, [[Vajikarana]] is described just after [[Rasayana]] chapter. Health scientists are showing great interest in screening classical ''rasayana'' drugs for their antioxidant activity and research reveals good results. Studies on ''amalaki rasayana'' <ref>Dwivedi V, Anandan EM, Mony RS, Muraleedharan TS, Valiathan MS, Mutsuddi M, et al. In vivo effects of traditional Ayurvedic formulations in Drosophila melanogaster relate with therapeutic applications. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37113.</ref> shows increased longevity and on Drosophila melanogaster <ref> Fontana L, Partridge L, Longo VD. Extending healthy life span – From yeast to humans. Science. 2010;328:321–6.</ref> there is reduced oxidative damage to extend lifespan. Many drugs are described as ''rasayanas'' and ''vajikara'' both. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) has deteriorating effect on sperm. This has been increasing due to changing lifestyle and exposure to environmental pollution. Spermatozoa normally produce ROS in a normal physiological process. The amount of ROS produced is to be carefully controlled. Imbalance between the generation and scavenging of ROS may lead to damage to DNA or other important structures. Spermatozoa lack cytoplasmic defensive enzymes, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, which are involved in the protection of most cell types from ROS induced peroxidative damage. Large amounts of unsaturated fatty acids are observed in plasma membranes of spermatozoa, those are particularly vulnerable to free radical attack.<ref>Jones R and Mann T (1973) Lipid peroxidation in spermatozoa. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 184,103–107.</ref> The subfertile men have higher concentrations of ROS in seminal plasma, whereas an inverse correlation exists between ROS concentration and motility.<ref>Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N, Skakkebaek NE, Review Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. BMJ. 1992 Sep 12; 305(6854):609-13</ref> Many ''rasayanas'' act as antioxidants, so they can also be used to enhance sperm quality and quantity. Thus, mutual correlation and common mode of action justifies description of ''vajikarana'' just after ''rasayana'' therapy.

''Rasayana'' and [[Vajikarana]] therapies have common aim to provide positive health and prevention of diseases by increasing vigor of healthy person and so, [[Vajikarana]] is described just after [[Rasayana]] chapter. Health scientists are showing great interest in screening classical ''rasayana'' drugs for their antioxidant activity and research reveals good results. Studies on ''amalaki rasayana'' <ref>Dwivedi V, Anandan EM, Mony RS, Muraleedharan TS, Valiathan MS, Mutsuddi M, et al. In vivo effects of traditional Ayurvedic formulations in Drosophila melanogaster relate with therapeutic applications. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37113.</ref> shows increased longevity and on Drosophila melanogaster <ref> Fontana L, Partridge L, Longo VD. Extending healthy life span – From yeast to humans. Science. 2010;328:321–6.</ref> there is reduced oxidative damage to extend lifespan. Many drugs are described as ''rasayanas'' and ''vajikara'' both. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) has deteriorating effect on sperm. This has been increasing due to changing lifestyle and exposure to environmental pollution. Spermatozoa normally produce ROS in a normal physiological process. The amount of ROS produced is to be carefully controlled. Imbalance between the generation and scavenging of ROS may lead to damage to DNA or other important structures. Spermatozoa lack cytoplasmic defensive enzymes, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, which are involved in the protection of most cell types from ROS induced peroxidative damage. Large amounts of unsaturated fatty acids are observed in plasma membranes of spermatozoa, those are particularly vulnerable to free radical attack.<ref>Jones R and Mann T (1973) Lipid peroxidation in spermatozoa. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 184,103–107.</ref> The subfertile men have higher concentrations of ROS in seminal plasma, whereas an inverse correlation exists between ROS concentration and motility.<ref>Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N, Skakkebaek NE, Review Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. BMJ. 1992 Sep 12; 305(6854):609-13</ref> Many ''rasayanas'' act as antioxidants, so they can also be used to enhance sperm quality and quantity. Thus, mutual correlation and common mode of action justifies description of [[Vajikarana]] just after ''rasayana'' therapy.

For many years, decline in human semen quality and fertility rates has been a concern.<ref>MacLeod J, Heim L M. Characteristics and variations in semen specimens in 100 normal young men. Journal of Urology. 1945;54:474–482.</ref> Environmental and occupational pollutants, changes in lifestyles, exposure to toxic agents, and changes in dietary habits are observed among the most commonly cited factors associated with these declines.<ref>Tielemans E, Burdorf A, te Velde ER, Weber RF, van Kooij RJ, Veulemans H, Heederik DJ, Occupationally related exposures and reduced semen quality: a case-control study, Fertil Steril. 1999 Apr; 71(4):690-6.</ref> The environmental and lifestyle factors causing subfertility shall be targeted for curative or preventive measures. Environmental stress causes increase in the number of free radicals (i.e., hydrogen peroxide [H2O2] and reactive oxygen species [ROS] that cause apoptosis in the spermatogenic cell.<ref>Wang X, Sharma RK, Sikka SC. Oxidative stress is associated with increased apoptosis leading to spermatoozoa DNA damage in patients with male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2003;80:531–5.</ref> Chronic or severe stress leads to anovulation and amenorrhea in women <ref>Barnea, E. R., and Tal, J. Stress-r elated reproductive failure. J. In Vitro Fertil. Embryo Transfer 8: 15-23 (1991).</ref> and to decrease in sperm count, motility, and morphology in men.<ref>McGrady, A. V. Effects of psychological stress on male reproduction: a review. Arch. Androl. 131: 1-10 (1984).</ref> Smoking,<ref>Goverde HJ, Dekker HS, Janssen HJ, Bastiaans BA, Rolland R, Zielhuis GA.,Semen quality and frequency of smoking and alcohol consumption--an explorative study. Int J Fertil Menopausal Stud. 1995 May-Jun;40(3):135-8.</ref> alcohol,<ref>Joo KJ, Kwon YW, Myung SC, Kim TH, The effects of smoking and alcohol intake on sperm quality: light and transmission electron microscopy findings. J Int Med Res. 2012;40(6):2327-35.</ref> caffeine,<ref>Vine MF, Setzer RW Jr, Everson RB, Wyrobek AJ, Human sperm morphometry and smoking, caffeine, and alcohol consumption. Reprod Toxicol. 1997 Mar-Jun;11(2-3):179-84.</ref> pesticides, air pollution,<ref>Jurewicz J, Hanke W, Radwan M, Bonde JP, Environmental factors and semen quality.Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2009;22(4):305-29.</ref> bisphenol A,<ref>Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP. Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells. Endocrinology. 2004;145:592–603</ref> diseases like hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardio-vascular disease are related to deterioration of reproductive health<ref>Sunil Kumar, Archana Kumari, Shiva, Murarka, Lifestyle factors in deteriorating male reproductive health, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol 47, August 2009, pp.615-624.</ref> by affecting sperm quality.  

For many years, decline in human semen quality and fertility rates has been a concern.<ref>MacLeod J, Heim L M. Characteristics and variations in semen specimens in 100 normal young men. Journal of Urology. 1945;54:474–482.</ref> Environmental and occupational pollutants, changes in lifestyles, exposure to toxic agents, and changes in dietary habits are observed among the most commonly cited factors associated with these declines.<ref>Tielemans E, Burdorf A, te Velde ER, Weber RF, van Kooij RJ, Veulemans H, Heederik DJ, Occupationally related exposures and reduced semen quality: a case-control study, Fertil Steril. 1999 Apr; 71(4):690-6.</ref> The environmental and lifestyle factors causing subfertility shall be targeted for curative or preventive measures. Environmental stress causes increase in the number of free radicals (i.e., hydrogen peroxide [H2O2] and reactive oxygen species [ROS] that cause apoptosis in the spermatogenic cell.<ref>Wang X, Sharma RK, Sikka SC. Oxidative stress is associated with increased apoptosis leading to spermatoozoa DNA damage in patients with male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2003;80:531–5.</ref> Chronic or severe stress leads to anovulation and amenorrhea in women <ref>Barnea, E. R., and Tal, J. Stress-r elated reproductive failure. J. In Vitro Fertil. Embryo Transfer 8: 15-23 (1991).</ref> and to decrease in sperm count, motility, and morphology in men.<ref>McGrady, A. V. Effects of psychological stress on male reproduction: a review. Arch. Androl. 131: 1-10 (1984).</ref> Smoking,<ref>Goverde HJ, Dekker HS, Janssen HJ, Bastiaans BA, Rolland R, Zielhuis GA.,Semen quality and frequency of smoking and alcohol consumption--an explorative study. Int J Fertil Menopausal Stud. 1995 May-Jun;40(3):135-8.</ref> alcohol,<ref>Joo KJ, Kwon YW, Myung SC, Kim TH, The effects of smoking and alcohol intake on sperm quality: light and transmission electron microscopy findings. J Int Med Res. 2012;40(6):2327-35.</ref> caffeine,<ref>Vine MF, Setzer RW Jr, Everson RB, Wyrobek AJ, Human sperm morphometry and smoking, caffeine, and alcohol consumption. Reprod Toxicol. 1997 Mar-Jun;11(2-3):179-84.</ref> pesticides, air pollution,<ref>Jurewicz J, Hanke W, Radwan M, Bonde JP, Environmental factors and semen quality.Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2009;22(4):305-29.</ref> bisphenol A,<ref>Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP. Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells. Endocrinology. 2004;145:592–603</ref> diseases like hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardio-vascular disease are related to deterioration of reproductive health<ref>Sunil Kumar, Archana Kumari, Shiva, Murarka, Lifestyle factors in deteriorating male reproductive health, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol 47, August 2009, pp.615-624.</ref> by affecting sperm quality.  

=== Role of diet in ''vajikarana'' ===

=== Role of diet in [[Vajikarana]] ===

Nutrition status is also a major cause of sub-fertility. Sexual dysfunction due to malnutrition can be easily overcome. Nutrition is important for DNA synthesis leading to development of spermatozoa and oocytes. Diet also provides exogenous antioxidants (vitamins C and E).  Dietary formulations mentioned are perfect amalgamation of energy and nutrients required for production and maturation of sperm.   

Nutrition status is also a major cause of sub-fertility. Sexual dysfunction due to malnutrition can be easily overcome. Nutrition is important for DNA synthesis leading to development of spermatozoa and oocytes. Diet also provides exogenous antioxidants (vitamins C and E).  Dietary formulations mentioned are perfect amalgamation of energy and nutrients required for production and maturation of sperm.