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|keywords=Vayu (air), udaka (water), desha (land), kala (season),contamination, epidemics, lifespan, daiva (predetermined), purushakara(human effort of present life)

|keywords=Vayu (air), udaka (water), desha (land), kala (season),contamination, epidemics, lifespan, daiva (predetermined), purushakara(human effort of present life)

|description=Vimana Sthana Chapter 3. Destruction/Annihilation of Communities due to natural calamities

|description=Vimana Sthana Chapter 3. Determination of specific characteristics of destruction of communities

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<big>'''Vimana Sthana Chapter 3. Destruction/Annihilation of Communities due to natural calamities '''</big>

<big>'''Vimana Sthana Chapter 3. Determination of specific characteristics of destruction of communities '''</big>

<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

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=== Introduction ===

== Introduction ==

''Janapadodhvansa'' literally means destruction or annihilation of communities or settlements. Epidemics and outbreaks of highly communicable diseases have blighted mankind since time immemorial. Ayurvedic scholars and exponents of antiquity like Sushruta and Charaka recorded these in their works on ''aupasargika roga'' and ''janapadodhvansa'' respectively, according special importance to the topic.  

''Janapadodhvansa'' literally means destruction or annihilation of communities or settlements. Epidemics and outbreaks of highly communicable diseases have blighted mankind since time immemorial. Ayurvedic scholars and exponents of antiquity like Sushruta and Charaka recorded these in their works on ''aupasargika roga'' and ''janapadodhvansa'' respectively, according special importance to the topic.  

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===Sanskrit Text, Transliteration and English Translation===

== Sanskrit Text, Transliteration and English Translation ==

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Now we shall discuss the chapter on “Determination of specific characteristics of ''janapadodhvansa'' (destruction of communities). (The term ''janapadodhvansa'' is a generic term for natural and man-made calamities, also implying epidemics.). Thus said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

Now we shall expound the chapter "Janapadodhvansaniya Vimana" (Determination of specific characteristics of destruction of communities). Thus said Lord Atreya. [1-2]

==== Location of the discussion ====

 

=== Location of the discussion ===

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Lord Atreya, while taking a stroll in the latter month of a summer, surrounded by his disciples, in the forest area near the banks of Ganga at Kampilya, capital city of Panchala region, which was the residence of the ''dwija'' (elite of the twice born communities like brahmins who adopt wearing of sacred thread on their body), thus turned to his disciple Agnivesha and said. [3]

Lord Atreya, while taking a stroll in the latter month of a summer, surrounded by his disciples, in the forest area near the banks of Ganga at Kampilya, capital city of Panchala region, which was the residence of the ''dwija'' (elite of the twice born communities like brahmins who adopt wearing of sacred thread on their body), thus turned to his disciple Agnivesha and said. [3]

==== Importance of timely drug collection ====

=== Importance of timely drug collection ===

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Gentle one (Agnivesha), the abnormal conditions of the stars, the planets, the Moon, the Sun, the wind, the fire and the directions seem to give us the ominous sign that there is going to be a derangement of seasons. As a result of this abnormality, the earth will fail to produce herbs possessing good qualities of ''rasa'' (taste), ''veerya'' (potency), ''vipaka'' (metabolism of diet and drugs), and ''prabhava'' (specific attribute). In consequence of these properties, spread of diseases is certain. Therefore, well before any calamities occur and well before the earth has lost its fertility, collect the medicinal herbs before they lose their ''rasa, veerya, vipaka'' and ''prabhava''. We shall thus, when the occasion arises, make use of the drugs having optimum qualities for the benefit of those who seek us and also those whom we seek to help. There will not be any difficulty in counteracting any ''janapadodhvansa vyadhi'' (disease due to natural calamities or epidemics), if the drugs are properly collected well in advance, processed and administered. [4]

Gentle one (Agnivesha), the abnormal conditions of the stars, the planets, the Moon, the Sun, the wind, the fire and the directions seem to give us the ominous sign that there is going to be a derangement of seasons. As a result of this abnormality, the earth will fail to produce herbs possessing good qualities of ''rasa'' (taste), ''veerya'' (potency), ''vipaka'' (metabolism of diet and drugs), and ''prabhava'' (specific attribute). In consequence of these properties, spread of diseases is certain. Therefore, well before any calamities occur and well before the earth has lost its fertility, collect the medicinal herbs before they lose their ''rasa, veerya, vipaka'' and ''prabhava''. We shall thus, when the occasion arises, make use of the drugs having optimum qualities for the benefit of those who seek us and also those whom we seek to help. There will not be any difficulty in counteracting any ''janapadodhvansa vyadhi'' (disease due to natural calamities or epidemics), if the drugs are properly collected well in advance, processed and administered. [4]

==== Agnivesha’s question ====

=== Agnivesha’s question ===

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He then asked Lord Atreya, “How does the simultaneous destruction of communities take place by the incidence of one single disease, in spite of individuals who differ from one another in their constitution, diet, physique, vitality, habits, psychic make up, and age?” [5]

He then asked Lord Atreya, “How does the simultaneous destruction of communities take place by the incidence of one single disease, in spite of individuals who differ from one another in their constitution, diet, physique, vitality, habits, psychic make up, and age?” [5]

==== Atreya’s explanation ====

=== Atreya’s explanation ===

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Lord Atreya replied “Agnivesha! Though a community may be dissimilar with respect to the constitution and other characteristics of its individuals, there are other common factors which often get adversely affected, resulting in simultaneous outbreak of diseases having similar symptoms that destroy communities. The common factors which affect mass population are ''vayu'' (air), ''udaka'' (water), ''desha'' (land) and ''kala'' (season). [6]

Lord Atreya replied “Agnivesha! Though a community may be dissimilar with respect to the constitution and other characteristics of its individuals, there are other common factors which often get adversely affected, resulting in simultaneous outbreak of diseases having similar symptoms that destroy communities. The common factors which affect mass population are ''vayu'' (air), ''udaka'' (water), ''desha'' (land) and ''kala'' (season). [6]

==== Characteristics of polluted air ====

=== Characteristics of polluted air ===

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The characteristic features of air that is known to cause widespread diseases include air that is not in conformity with the season, totally calm or violently blowing, exceedingly rough, intensely cold, intensely hot, excessively dry, excessively humid, terribly clamorous, blowing from contrary directions and clashing with each other (winds blowing in opposite direction), violently spinning (whirlwind) and associated with unwholesome odour, moisture, sand, dust and smoke. [6.1]

The characteristic features of air that is known to cause widespread diseases include air that is not in conformity with the season, totally calm or violently blowing, exceedingly rough, intensely cold, intensely hot, excessively dry, excessively humid, terribly clamorous, blowing from contrary directions and clashing with each other (winds blowing in opposite direction), violently spinning (whirlwind) and associated with unwholesome odour, moisture, sand, dust and smoke. [6.1]

==== Characteristics of polluted water ====

=== Characteristics of polluted water ===

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Water that does not seem normal in smell, colour, taste and touch, has excessive stickiness, is from a source devoid of aquatic animals and birds or from a drying up water reservoir without pleasantness and is basically devoid of normal attributes indicates polluted water. [6.2]

Water that does not seem normal in smell, colour, taste and touch, has excessive stickiness, is from a source devoid of aquatic animals and birds or from a drying up water reservoir without pleasantness and is basically devoid of normal attributes indicates polluted water. [6.2]

==== Characteristics of polluted land ====

=== Characteristics of polluted land ===

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Any land having abnormal colour, odour, taste and touch, that which is excessively damp and has an abundance of serpents, beasts, mosquitoes, locusts, flies, mice, owls, birds and animals such as jackal, and jungles of ''ulupa'' grass and weeds, is abounding in creepers, where crops have fallen, withered or have been destroyed in an unprecedented manner, where the wind is smoky, where (unusual) cries of birds and dogs are heard, where herds of animals and flocks of birds of various kinds are always in a state of panic and pain, where the people’s virtues like religion, truth, modesty, custom, character have either declined or been given up, where the water reservoirs always alter and are over-flowing, where there is frequent exposure to meteorites, thunderbolts and earthquakes, where nature is full of menacing sound and sights, where the sun, the moon and the stars are frequently covered by dry, coppery, ruddy and grey clouds and the general atmosphere is of constant confusion, excitement and lamentation, crying, fright and darkness as if seized by ''guhyaka'' (ghosts and ghouls). [6.3]

Any land having abnormal colour, odour, taste and touch, that which is excessively damp and has an abundance of serpents, beasts, mosquitoes, locusts, flies, mice, owls, birds and animals such as jackal, and jungles of ''ulupa'' grass and weeds, is abounding in creepers, where crops have fallen, withered or have been destroyed in an unprecedented manner, where the wind is smoky, where (unusual) cries of birds and dogs are heard, where herds of animals and flocks of birds of various kinds are always in a state of panic and pain, where the people’s virtues like religion, truth, modesty, custom, character have either declined or been given up, where the water reservoirs always alter and are over-flowing, where there is frequent exposure to meteorites, thunderbolts and earthquakes, where nature is full of menacing sound and sights, where the sun, the moon and the stars are frequently covered by dry, coppery, ruddy and grey clouds and the general atmosphere is of constant confusion, excitement and lamentation, crying, fright and darkness as if seized by ''guhyaka'' (ghosts and ghouls). [6.3]

==== Characteristics of polluted time/season ====

=== Characteristics of polluted time/season ===

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These four environmental factors, affected in the aforesaid way,  can be considered the type that cause epidemics, and those having features contrary to these could be considered wholesome. [7]

These four environmental factors, affected in the aforesaid way,  can be considered the type that cause epidemics, and those having features contrary to these could be considered wholesome. [7]

==== General measures for the management ====

=== General measures for the management ===

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Out of aforesaid derangements among the four factors, one should know that it is easier to correct the vitiation of ''vayu, udaka'' and ''desha'', than of ''udaka, desha'' and ''kala''.[10-11]

Out of aforesaid derangements among the four factors, one should know that it is easier to correct the vitiation of ''vayu, udaka'' and ''desha'', than of ''udaka, desha'' and ''kala''.[10-11]

==== General treatment in epidemics ====

=== General treatment in epidemics ===

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Truthfulness, compassion for living beings, charity, sacrifices, worship of god, observance of right conduct, tranquility, prophylactic protection of oneself and seeking one’s own good, residing in a wholesome country, service to those observing ''brahmacharya'' (celibacy) and following it, discussion of religious scriptures, constant association with the righteous, the well disposed and those who are approved by the elders- all this with a view to protecting life has been termed ‘medicine’ to those who are not destined to die in that critical time. [12-18]

Truthfulness, compassion for living beings, charity, sacrifices, worship of god, observance of right conduct, tranquility, prophylactic protection of oneself and seeking one’s own good, residing in a wholesome country, service to those observing ''brahmacharya'' (celibacy) and following it, discussion of religious scriptures, constant association with the righteous, the well disposed and those who are approved by the elders- all this with a view to protecting life has been termed ‘medicine’ to those who are not destined to die in that critical time. [12-18]

==== Causes for the vitiation of janapadodhwansa factors ====

=== Causes for the vitiation of janapadodhwansa factors ===

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Thus when the reigning heads of countries, cities, trade guilds etc. govern the people irresponsibly by transgressing the virtuous path, then their officers, sub-ordinates and under- subordinates, people of the city and community and traders deviate from their duties as well and propagate such unrighteous acts further. Their sinful acts perforce causes the righteous acts to disappear. Because of the disappearance of righteous acts, even the Gods desert the people living in such places. This causes seasons to get impaired in these places. There is no rain in time, or never at all, or abnormal rain occurs; the air does not blow properly; the land is afflicted, the water reservoirs dry up, and herbs lose their true properties and suffer deterioration. As a consequence, the people perish as the result of infectious contact or ingestion of polluted food and water.[19-20]

Thus when the reigning heads of countries, cities, trade guilds etc. govern the people irresponsibly by transgressing the virtuous path, then their officers, sub-ordinates and under- subordinates, people of the city and community and traders deviate from their duties as well and propagate such unrighteous acts further. Their sinful acts perforce causes the righteous acts to disappear. Because of the disappearance of righteous acts, even the Gods desert the people living in such places. This causes seasons to get impaired in these places. There is no rain in time, or never at all, or abnormal rain occurs; the air does not blow properly; the land is afflicted, the water reservoirs dry up, and herbs lose their true properties and suffer deterioration. As a consequence, the people perish as the result of infectious contact or ingestion of polluted food and water.[19-20]

==== Sinful acts- the cause of war and destruction ====

=== Sinful acts- the cause of war and destruction ===

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In the same manner, it is unrighteous act alone that is the cause of the destruction of peoples by weapons. Those who suffer from excessive ''lobha'' (greed), ''krodha'' (anger), ''moha'' (attachment), and disregard the weak may start fighting among themselves with weapons and attack either the enemies or get attacked by enemies.  [21]

In the same manner, it is unrighteous act alone that is the cause of the destruction of peoples by weapons. Those who suffer from excessive ''lobha'' (greed), ''krodha'' (anger), ''moha'' (attachment), and disregard the weak may start fighting among themselves with weapons and attack either the enemies or get attacked by enemies.  [21]

==== Sinful acts leading to affliction by demons and curse of sages ====

=== Sinful acts leading to affliction by demons and curse of sages ===

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People also get destroyed by ''rakshasa'' (demons) or other creatures due to unrighteous or other deviant acts. ''Adharma'' (unrighteousness) is also the cause of diseases caused as a result of curses. Those who get by without performing religious duties or who shirk from their religious duties tend to behave irresponsibly or are disrespectful to the preceptors, elders, the wise, sages and the nobility. Consequently, such people often get cursed by preceptors etc. Such wraths could destroy individuals or communities immediately or at a pre-determined time. [23]

People also get destroyed by ''rakshasa'' (demons) or other creatures due to unrighteous or other deviant acts. ''Adharma'' (unrighteousness) is also the cause of diseases caused as a result of curses. Those who get by without performing religious duties or who shirk from their religious duties tend to behave irresponsibly or are disrespectful to the preceptors, elders, the wise, sages and the nobility. Consequently, such people often get cursed by preceptors etc. Such wraths could destroy individuals or communities immediately or at a pre-determined time. [23]

==== The decrease of virtue and life span by a quarter in each ''Yuga'' (time period) ====

=== The decrease of virtue and life span by a quarter in each ''Yuga'' (time period) ===

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After lord Atreya’s talk, Agnivesha raised a query- Lord! Is the life span of all individuals predetermined or is it not? [24-28]

After lord Atreya’s talk, Agnivesha raised a query- Lord! Is the life span of all individuals predetermined or is it not? [24-28]

==== Factors determining the life span ====

=== Factors determining the life span ===

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Now listen to the other cause of the pre-determination, or of the life-span. A weak ''daiva'' gets subdued by a strong ''purushakara''. Similarly a strong daiva overshadows one’s ''purushakara'' and because of this, some scholars hold the view that the span of life is invariably predetermined. There are some powerful actions whose implementation takes place at a predetermined time, but there is another kind of action whose implementation is not predetermined and gets manifested in an appropriate atmosphere. [29-35]

Now listen to the other cause of the pre-determination, or of the life-span. A weak ''daiva'' gets subdued by a strong ''purushakara''. Similarly a strong daiva overshadows one’s ''purushakara'' and because of this, some scholars hold the view that the span of life is invariably predetermined. There are some powerful actions whose implementation takes place at a predetermined time, but there is another kind of action whose implementation is not predetermined and gets manifested in an appropriate atmosphere. [29-35]

==== The proof of the indeterminateness of the life span ====

=== The proof of the indeterminateness of the life span ===

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One should abstain from excessive, negative and perverted use of time, actions, and senses. It is important to control emotions, not suppress natural urges (to pass bodily wastes), and avoid over-exertion. One should resort to the right and gradual habituation (and not a rapid or quick adoption) to behavior and dietetic articles which are antagonistic to the prevailing region, season and one’s own constitution. We know, and therefore we properly advise and observe the above mentioned factors for the maintenance of health. [36]

One should abstain from excessive, negative and perverted use of time, actions, and senses. It is important to control emotions, not suppress natural urges (to pass bodily wastes), and avoid over-exertion. One should resort to the right and gradual habituation (and not a rapid or quick adoption) to behavior and dietetic articles which are antagonistic to the prevailing region, season and one’s own constitution. We know, and therefore we properly advise and observe the above mentioned factors for the maintenance of health. [36]

==== Timely and untimely death ====

=== Timely and untimely death ===

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On hearing this, Agnivesha asked, “Lord! If this is so, that the lives of men are of un-predetermined duration, then what makes for death in due time and death before time (prematurely)?”

On hearing this, Agnivesha asked, “Lord! If this is so, that the lives of men are of un-predetermined duration, then what makes for death in due time and death before time (prematurely)?”

The Lord Atreya said to him, “Listen, Agnivesha! Just as a vehicle with an axle endowed with all good qualities and driven on a good road gets destroyed only after the expiry of its normal life, similarly the life inside the body of an individual endowed with strong physique and wholesome regimen will come to an end only at the end of its normal span (according to the ''yuga''). This is called ''kalamrityu'' (timely death). The same vehicle along with its axle may subject itself to premature destruction in the event of a heavy load, uneven road, driving in places where there is no road, breakage of the wheel, defects in the vehicle or the driver, separation of the locking hook, lack of grease or a mishap. Similarly, in the event of overstrain, eating in excess of one’s own ''agni'' (digestive power), irregular meals, irregular posture of the body, excessive indulgence in sex, company of evil or wicked, suppression of manifested natural urges, non-suppression of urges which should be controlled, affliction with evil spirits (germs), poison, wind and fire, exposure to injuries and avoidance of food and medicines, or if afflicted with diseases but not treated properly, the life of a human being comes to a premature end. This is called ''akalamrityu'' (premature death). [37-38]

The Lord Atreya said to him, “Listen, Agnivesha! Just as a vehicle with an axle endowed with all good qualities and driven on a good road gets destroyed only after the expiry of its normal life, similarly the life inside the body of an individual endowed with strong physique and wholesome regimen will come to an end only at the end of its normal span (according to the ''yuga''). This is called ''kalamrityu'' (timely death). The same vehicle along with its axle may subject itself to premature destruction in the event of a heavy load, uneven road, driving in places where there is no road, breakage of the wheel, defects in the vehicle or the driver, separation of the locking hook, lack of grease or a mishap. Similarly, in the event of overstrain, eating in excess of one’s own ''agni'' (digestive power), irregular meals, irregular posture of the body, excessive indulgence in sex, company of evil or wicked, suppression of manifested natural urges, non-suppression of urges which should be controlled, affliction with evil spirits (germs), poison, wind and fire, exposure to injuries and avoidance of food and medicines, or if afflicted with diseases but not treated properly, the life of a human being comes to a premature end. This is called ''akala mrityu'' (premature death). [37-38]

==== The role of hot water in ''jwara'' ====

=== The role of hot water in ''jwara'' ===

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The intelligent physician treats disorders originating from heat (or hot sources) with cold measures and the disorders born of cold using hot measures. Thus, the treatment of other diseases is planned with antagonistic measures of etiological factors since there is no alleviation of the disorders caused by ''apatarpana'' without ''santarpana'', and of those caused by ''santarpana'' without ''apatarpana''. [41-42]

The intelligent physician treats disorders originating from heat (or hot sources) with cold measures and the disorders born of cold using hot measures. Thus, the treatment of other diseases is planned with antagonistic measures of etiological factors since there is no alleviation of the disorders caused by ''apatarpana'' without ''santarpana'', and of those caused by ''santarpana'' without ''apatarpana''. [41-42]

==== ''Apatarpana Chikitsa'' (depletion measures) ====

=== ''Apatarpana Chikitsa'' (depletion measures) ===

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In disorders of severe morbidity, there is only one course available, which is the elimination of toxic ''doshas''. There is no remedy for overflowing of a pool except for creating a breach in its field barrier.

In disorders of severe morbidity, there is only one course available, which is the elimination of toxic ''doshas''. There is no remedy for overflowing of a pool except for creating a breach in its field barrier.

===== Individuals naturally unfit for treatment =====

==== Individuals naturally unfit for treatment ====

Once the state of a disease is assessed, the physician should remember that even if elimination therapies could be felt as necessary or required, other forms of depletion therapies and nourishing therapies should not be administered to such patients as those who have not been absolved of allegations against them, those who are without wealth or attendants, those who do not follow their doctors’ instructions, those who are violent, those who are jealous, those who take keen pleasure in vicious acts, those whose strength, muscle bulk, and blood have been excessively depleted, those who are suffering from incurable diseases, and those who exhibit fatal prognostic signs. By treating such patients, the physician commits sin and attracts defamation and ignominy. [43-45]

Once the state of a disease is assessed, the physician should remember that even if elimination therapies could be felt as necessary or required, other forms of depletion therapies and nourishing therapies should not be administered to such patients as those who have not been absolved of allegations against them, those who are without wealth or attendants, those who do not follow their doctors’ instructions, those who are violent, those who are jealous, those who take keen pleasure in vicious acts, those whose strength, muscle bulk, and blood have been excessively depleted, those who are suffering from incurable diseases, and those who exhibit fatal prognostic signs. By treating such patients, the physician commits sin and attracts defamation and ignominy. [43-45]

==== Types of land ====

=== Types of land ===

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A region that sees scanty rainfall and desert vegetation is called ''jangala desha'' (arid land), and such a land is swept by high winds and abundant sunshine. It causes minimum number of diseases. That region which has abundant rainfall and luxuriant vegetation, scarcity of air and sunshine is known as ''anupa desha'' (wet land). The climate in such lands causes many ''doshas'' (bodily disorders). If the characteristics of these two varieties of ''desha'' are in balance in a land, such a place is known as ''sadharana desha'' (normal land). [47-48]

A region that sees scanty rainfall and desert vegetation is called ''jangala desha'' (arid land), and such a land is swept by high winds and abundant sunshine. It causes minimum number of diseases. That region which has abundant rainfall and luxuriant vegetation, scarcity of air and sunshine is known as ''anupa desha'' (wet land). The climate in such lands causes many ''doshas'' (bodily disorders). If the characteristics of these two varieties of ''desha'' are in balance in a land, such a place is known as ''sadharana desha'' (normal land). [47-48]

==== Summary ====

=== Summary ===

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Thus ends the third chapter on janapadodhwansa of the vimana section , composed by Agnivesha and redacted by Charaka. [49-52]

Thus ends the third chapter on janapadodhwansa of the vimana section , composed by Agnivesha and redacted by Charaka. [49-52]

=== ''Tattva Vimarsha'' / Fundamental Principles===

== Tattva Vimarsha (Fundamental Principles) ==

* ''Janapadodhvansa'' (destruction of human settlements or communities by means of natural and man-made calamities including epidemics) occurs when collective action of communities/towns/ countries do not follow their ''dharma'' (eternal duty) in the present and/or past lives and commit acts that are unrighteous or even harmful.

* ''Janapadodhvansa'' (destruction of human settlements or communities by means of natural and man-made calamities including epidemics) occurs when collective action of communities/towns/ countries do not follow their ''dharma'' (eternal duty) in the present and/or past lives and commit acts that are unrighteous or even harmful.

* ''Langhana'' (reducing therapy) is done for mildly vitiated ''doshas''. ''Langhana pachana'' (reducing therapy along with therapies for digestion of ''ama dosha'') is done in moderately ''vitiated doshas''. ''Doshavasechana'' (elimination of vitiated ''doshas'' from the body) is done in severely vitiated ''doshas''.

* ''Langhana'' (reducing therapy) is done for mildly vitiated ''doshas''. ''Langhana pachana'' (reducing therapy along with therapies for digestion of ''ama dosha'') is done in moderately ''vitiated doshas''. ''Doshavasechana'' (elimination of vitiated ''doshas'' from the body) is done in severely vitiated ''doshas''.

=== ''Vidhi Vimarsha'' / Applied Inferences===

== Vidhi Vimarsha (Applied Inferences) ==

The ''janapadas'' (Sanskrit: जनपद) were the major realms, republics or kingdoms of ''vedic'' (Iron Age) India. By the 6th century BC, they were divided into sixteen classical ''mahajanapadas''. The term ''janapada'' is a compound (or ''tatpurusha'') term, comprising of ''jana'' (people or subjects) and ''pada'' (foot). From its earliest attestations, the word has multiple meanings, and depending upon the context, could mean a community, a realm, or a population. ''Janapadas'' could also mean gathering places of men, merchants, artisans and craftsmen akin to a marketplace or town surrounded by hamlets and villages. A ''janapadin'' is the ruler of a ''janapada''.

The ''janapadas'' (Sanskrit: जनपद) were the major realms, republics or kingdoms of ''vedic'' (Iron Age) India. By the 6th century BC, they were divided into sixteen classical ''mahajanapadas''. The term ''janapada'' is a compound (or ''tatpurusha'') term, comprising of ''jana'' (people or subjects) and ''pada'' (foot). From its earliest attestations, the word has multiple meanings, and depending upon the context, could mean a community, a realm, or a population. ''Janapadas'' could also mean gathering places of men, merchants, artisans and craftsmen akin to a marketplace or town surrounded by hamlets and villages. A ''janapadin'' is the ruler of a ''janapada''.

Diseases in nature may manifest in the form of epidemic, endemic and pandemic. Epidemics defined as an occurrence of disease that is temporarily of high prevalence or a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time. An epidemic occurring over a wide geographical area (e.g., worldwide) is called pandemic. Endemic is a state of disease or condition regularly found among particular people or in a certain area.

Diseases in nature may manifest in the form of epidemic, endemic and pandemic. Epidemics defined as an occurrence of disease that is temporary of high prevalence or a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time. An epidemic occurring over a wide geographical area (e.g., worldwide) is called pandemic. Endemic is a state of disease or condition regularly found among particular people or in a certain area.

Over the centuries, many epidemic diseases have wiped out huge portions of populations. From cholera and small pox to the plague (Black Death) and influenza, the wide and rapid spread of diseases has decimated population many times over the ages.  [1-2]

Over the centuries, many epidemic diseases have wiped out huge portions of populations. From cholera and small pox to the plague (Black Death) and influenza, the wide and rapid spread of diseases has decimated population many times over the ages.  [1-2]