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<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

<big>'''Abstract'''</big>

<p style="text-align:justify;">This chapter deals with three methods of clinical examinations useful for understanding specific characteristics of diseases. These three methods are aptopadesha (authoritative instructions), pratyaksha (direct observation) and anumana (inference). These methods play a pivotal role not only in the diagnosis of a disease, but also in understanding whatever is knowable. In the beginning, one should faithfully go through the available authoritative literature available in that field of study. As per the guidelines of the literature, the physician should then proceed to perceive the direct observations, by his own senses. Many aspects of an ailment which are not perceivable by senses can be inferred by logic based on scriptures and by consulting experts. In this chapter, a set of assessment criteria has been provided for each method including pointers that help in determining what is to be examined by which method, how should something be examined, and what is to be inferred and on what basis, along with the authoritative sources of knowledge. </br>

<p style="text-align:justify;">This chapter deals with three methods of clinical examinations useful for understanding specific characteristics of diseases. These three methods are [[aptopadesha]] (authoritative instructions), [[Pratyaksha pramana|pratyaksha]] (direct observation) and [[Anumana pramana|anumana]] (inference). These methods play a pivotal role not only in the diagnosis of a disease, but also in understanding whatever is knowable. In the beginning, one should faithfully go through the available authoritative literature available in that field of study. As per the guidelines of the literature, the physician should then proceed to perceive the direct observations, by his own senses. Many aspects of an ailment which are not perceivable by senses can be inferred by logic based on scriptures and by consulting experts. In this chapter, a set of assessment criteria has been provided for each method including pointers that help in determining what is to be examined by which method, how should something be examined, and what is to be inferred and on what basis, along with the authoritative sources of knowledge. </br>

'''Keywords''': ''Aptopadesha, Pratyaksha, Anumana,'' Diagnosis, Authoritative instructions, Direct observations, inference, examination methods and tools.

'''Keywords''': [[Aptopadesha]]'','' [[Pratyaksha pramana|Pratyaksha]]'','' [[Anumana pramana|Anumana]]'','' Diagnosis, Authoritative instructions, Direct observations, inference, examination methods and tools.

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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

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[[Ayurveda]] has emphasized the importance, need and application of examination, and has stressed that even truth should be examined first and only then should be accepted. In [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 11, four methods of examination of all existing and non-existing subjects of knowledge to be examined have been given.[Cha.Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 11/17]. These four specific methods of examination are ''aptopadesha'' (knowledge from authoritative person and scriptures), ''pratyaksha'' (direct observation), ''anumana'' (inference) and ''yukti'' (logic based interpretation). For clinical examination of a patient, ''yukti pramana'' is included in ''anumana'' because inference should be included in ''tarka'' (logic) and ''yukti'' [Cha.Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 4/3-4]. The author did not feel the need for ''yukti'' to be done separately in clinical experiment, therefore three-fold (''trividha'') method of examination has been described.  

[[Ayurveda]] has emphasized the importance, need and application of examination, and has stressed that even truth should be examined first and only then should be accepted. In [[Sutra Sthana]], Chapter 11, four methods of examination of all existing and non-existing subjects of knowledge to be examined have been given.[Cha.Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 11/17] These four specific methods of examination are [[aptopadesha]] (knowledge from authoritative person and scriptures), ''pratyaksha'' (direct observation), ''anumana'' (inference) and [[Yukti pramana|yukti]] (logic based interpretation). For clinical examination of a patient, [[yukti pramana]] is included in ''anumana'' because inference should be included in ''tarka'' (logic) and ''yukti'' [Cha.Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 4/3-4]. The author did not feel the need for ''yukti'' to be done separately in clinical experiment, therefore three-fold (''trividha'') method of examination has been described.  

There are, however, limitations to these tools because all the three examinations should be applied, though sequentially (described later in the chapter), since one cannot rely completely on any one of these examinations. A wise physician should use all three tools together for a thorough assessment of the disease and then reach the final diagnosis. A physician who understands and exercises such practice does not commit any mistake in the treatment of the patients. [Cha.Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 4/11]  

There are, however, limitations to these tools because all the three examinations should be applied, though sequentially (described later in the chapter), since one cannot rely completely on any one of these examinations. A wise physician should use all three tools together for a thorough assessment of the disease and then reach the final diagnosis. A physician who understands and exercises such practice does not commit any mistake in the treatment of the patients. [Cha.Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 4/11]