Dosha are regulatory functional factors of body and mind. These are principal constituents of the body that are responsible for homeostasis, when present in the state of equilibrium. Dosha also determines the psycho-physiological nature/constitution of an individual. Dosha are capable of vitiating the different bodily tissues, when deviating from the state of equilibrium and can lead to diseases. [Code: SAT-B.382] [1]
Dosha are the physiological factors responsible for functions in normal state and pathogenesis of diseases in an abnormal state. Their state of equilibrium is one of the important pre-requisite for health.
| Section/Chapter/topic | Sharira / Dosha / Dosha |
|---|---|
| Authors |
Shilwant A.A.1, Deole Y.S.2 |
| Reviewed by | Basisht G.1 |
| Affiliations |
1Department of Kriya Sharir, G.J.Patel Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Anand, Gujarat, India 2Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre, I.P.G.T.& R.A., Jamnagar, Gujarat, India |
| Correspondence email: | carakasamhita@gmail.com |
| Date of first publication: | ???? |
| Subtypes | |
|---|---|
| Sharirik Dosha | Vata, Pitta, Kapha |
| Manasik Dosha | Raja, Tama |
| Vata | Prana, Udana, Vyana, Samana, Apana |
| Pitta | Pachaka, Ranjaka, Sadhaka, Alochaka, Bhrajaka |
| Kapha | Avalambaka, Kledaka, Shleshaka, Bodhaka, Tarpaka |
Dosha
The three dosha theory (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha) since its inception from a long time ago was established keeping the functional similarity of similar components governing the eco-system viz. Sun, Moon, and Wind. Ayurveda proposes this as a "Loka-Purush Samya Siddhanta"
Etymological meaning
The literal meaning of the term Dosha states the independent capacity of the body to vitiate, adulterate or contaminate any subtle to gross tissue or structure. On the other hand, these dosha are also involved during the conception or fertilization period influencing the formation of new zygote. So whichever the dosha completely dominates throughout the phase of zygote formation may eventually reflect all the characteristics and attribute as a part of behavior or temperament - Prakruti, throughout the lifetime of that particular individual. Thus the etymological meaning of the term Dosha stands as - whoever is independent, responsible for the formation of Prakruti, and is highly prone to get vitiated thus creating any abnormal pathology. This altogether comprises three aspects for recognization of Dosha - Prakruti arambhak, Svatantra, and Dushti kartutvam. These three dosha are omnipresent in the living body sustaining the integrity of Prana in its normal stages while the same is responsible for disease ailments when vitiated.
Definition
Dosha are generally said to be the humor of the body as per Ayurveda. These humors may be different as per the physical and psychological aspects of the body. Any substance which is independent in capacity to work, exclusively involved in Prakruti formation physiologically and tends to easily get deviated to create any pathology is termed to be Dosha. This altogether makes the Dosha a different one from the humor of Greek or Latin philosophy.
However, the term dosha is popularized by the tendency of them to create pathology by deviation in the normal functioning of the body. At the physical level, there are three Sharirik dosha namely - Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. At the psychological level, there are only two Mansik dosha namely - Raja and Tama. [2] The tridosha can be stated as -
- Vata - Principle factor for any type of movement, initiation, interest, locomotion.
- Pitta - Factor responsible for metabolism, heat, transduction, biotransformations.
- Kapha - Factor responsible for strength, vigor, retention, moisture, stability.
Constitution
Ayurveda believes that every materialistic and non-materialistic thing in the world is made up of the five primitive elements viz. Pancha mahabhutas. Thus every subtle to gross object is having fixed and proportionate elemental composition. Dosha are also having the same with one or the other dominating attributes. The involvement of these Mahabhutas in dosha are ultimately reflected by the guna possessed by the respective dosha.
- Vata dosha - Akasha and Vayu
- Pitta dosha - Teja or Agni
- Kapha dosha - Prithvi and Jala
Table 1:Elemental composition of dosha as per different Ayurvedic contexts
| Dosha | Ashtanga Samgraha | Sushrut Samhita | Chakrapani & Dalhan |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vata | Vayu and Akash | Vayu | Vayu |
| Pitta | Agni | Agni | Agni |
| Kapha | Prithvi and Jala | Soma (Jala) | Soma (Jala) |
Properties of Sharirik Dosha
Every materialistic or non-materialistic object (dravya) in the world acts only by the virtue of properties possessed by it. These properties, attributes are nothing but Guna of that dravya. The term Dosha from its definition states very three basic properties as -
- Which are involved in the formation of Prakriti (Somatotype) of an individual.
- Those which are independent.
- Those which are unstable and tend to deviate from normalcy and also have a tendency to create a disease.
Vata-Pitta-Kapha are the three Sharirik dosha. Each one possesses individual and specific properties within them. Ancient Ayurvedic scholars differ in their opinion as per their individual thinking and intellect. The following are the properties of Sharirik dosha as mentioned by different ancient scholars.
Table 2:Comparative analysis of properties of Vata Dosha
| Sr. No | Charak Samhita[3] | Sushrut Samhita[4] | Ashtanga Hridaya[5] | Kashyap Samhita | Sharangdhara Samhita |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ruksha (Dryness) | Ruksha (Dryness) | Ruksha (Dryness) | Ruksha (Dryness) | Ruksha (Dryness) |
| 2 | Laghu (Light weightedness) | Laghu (Light weightedness) | Laghu (Light weightedness) | - | Laghu (Light weightedness) |
| 3 | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) |
| 4 | Khara (Rough) | Khara (Rough) | Khara (Rough) | Khara (Rough) | - |
| 5 | Chala (Movable) | - | Chala (Movable) | Chala (Movable) | Chala (Movable) |
| 6 | Sukshma (Fine or Subtle) | - | Sukshma (Fine or Subtle) | - | Sukshma (Fine or Subtle) |
| 7 | Vishad (Cleaning or Removing tendency or Non-slimy), Daruna (Harshness)[6], Yogavahi (Synergistic in action)[7] | Tiryag (no any specific direction /Oblique), Dviguna (Shabda - Sound and Sparsha - Touch), Rajo bahula (mutually interdependent with Rajasik - exciting factors at psychological level), Achintya virya (Unimaginable potency), Doshanam neta (Primary to all other dosha), Roga Samuharat (Capable to vitiate enough to produce multiple diseases), Ashukari (Very quick in action), Muhushchari (Repeated tendency)[6] | Vishad (Cleaning or Removing tendency or Non-slimy), Vyavayi (Spreadable) | Rajo gunamaya (Dominant with Raja guna at psychological level), Vibhag karanam (Which separates, segregates) |
Table 3:Comparative analysis of properties of Pitta Dosha
| Sr. No | Charak Samhita | Sushruta Samhita[8] | Ashtanga Hridaya | Kashyap Samhita | Sharangdhar Samhita | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Sa-sneha (slightly unctuous) | - | Sa-sneha (slightly unctuous) | - | - | |
| 2 | Ushna (Hot) | Ushna (Hot) | Ushna (Hot) | Ushna (Hot) | Ushna (Hot) | |
| 3 | Tikshna (Sharp) | Tikshna (Sharp) | Tikshna (Sharp) | Tikshna (Sharp) | - | |
| 4 | Drava (Liquid) | Drava (Liquid) | Drava (Liquid) | Drava (Liquid) | Drava (Liquid) | |
| 5 | Amla (Sour in taste), Katu (Bitter in taste) | Katu (Normally Bitter in taste), Amla (Sour in taste abnormally)[8] | - | - | Katu - Tikta (Bitter and Spicy in taste normally), Amla (Sour in taste abnormally) | |
| 6 | - | Pita (Normally Yellowish in appearance), Nila (Bluish appearance abnormally) | - | - | Pita (Normally Yellowish in appearance), Nila (Bluish appearance abnormally) | |
| 7 | Vistra (Foul smelling) | Puti (Putrid smelling) | Vistra (Foul smelling) | |||
| 8 | - | - | Laghu (light weightedness) | Laghu (light weightedness) | - | |
| 9 | Sara (Secretory) | - | Sara (Secretory) | - | - | |
| 10 | - | - | - | - | Satvagunottaram (Dominant Satvik guna at psychological level) |
Table 4:Comparative analysis of properties of Kapha Dosha
| Sr. No | Charak Samhita | Sushrut Samhita | Ashtanga Hridaya | Sharangdhara Samhita |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Guru (Heavy) | Guru (Heavy) | Guru (Heavy) | Guru (Heavy) |
| 2 | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) | Shita (Cold) |
| 3 | Snigdha (Unctuous) | Snigdha (Unctuous) | Snigdha (Unctuous) | Snigdha (Unctuous) |
| 4 | Pichhila (Slimy, Sticky in nature) | Pichhila (Slimy, Sticky in nature) | Mrutsna (Slimy) | Pichhila (Slimy, Sticky in nature) |
| 5 | Sthir (Stable) | - | Sthir (Stable) | - |
| 6 | Madhur (Sweet in taste) | Madhur (Sweet in taste) | - | Madhur (Sweet in taste) |
Importance of Dosha
Dosha are the physiological entities of the body playing their respective role both at a physical and psychological level as well. They are involved in almost every happening inside the body from subtle to gross level activities. They are involved in the birth or origin of a tiny structure, component, organ, and ultimately an individual too. They are having a crucial role to run all the functional activities, mechanics of a structure, organ, system, and complete organism. Their importance is highlighted in Ayurveda in different Ayurvedic treatises as -
- दोषधातुमलमूलं हि शरीरम् | - सु.सू.१५/३
- दोषधातुमलमूलो हि देहः | - अ.सं.सू.१६
- दोषधातुमलामूलं हि सदा दहस्य तं चलः | - अ.ह्.सू.११
Physiological Importance
- Dosha are involved in the formation of Prakruti - As the definition of the Dosha itself implies - Prakruti arambhaktvam
- Dosha are vital components to maintain and establish the Health
- Normalcy of Dosha is responsible for Normal state of Agni
- Any deviation in any form of Dosha from their normalcy leads to the development of pathological ailments further leading to disease.
- Even though countable and limited Dosha, they are capable to produce innumerable pathological symptoms and diseases too.
- Dosha (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha) are the only components responsible for the origin and development of the metaphysical body and its formed elements. Thus are also considered as pillars of the body holding and sustaining the integrity of life. (वात पित्त श्लेषमाण एव देहसंभवहेतवः | - सु.सू.२१/३)
Inter-relation of Dosha with Rutu (Season)
The body is continuously exposed to the external environment and is under the influence of seasonal impact every now and then. Dosha as per their normal tendency of deviation tends to deviate with the change in season. Dosha starts accumulating further aggravating and then after alleviating due to seasonal changes. This variation and deviation of dosha from its normalcy is completely physiological subject to proper implementation and practicing seasonal regimen as mentioned by Ayurveda classics. It is essential to know the stage-wise variation of dosha to prevent from experiencing any pathological ailments or landing into diseases. This concept is also known as - Physiological Kriyakala.
Table 5:Physiological Kriyakala
| Sr. No | Dosha | Chaya (Stage of Accumulation of Dosha) | Prakop (Stage of Aggravation of Dosha) | Prasham (Stage of Alleviation of Dosha) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vata | Grishma (Summer) | Varsha (Rainy season) | Sharad (Autumn) |
| 2 | Pitta | Varsha (Rainy season) | Sharad (Autumn) | Hemant (Pre-Winter) |
| 3 | Kapha | Shishir (Winter) | Vasant (Spring) | Grishma (Summer) |
Pathological Importance
The dosha as the name is suggestive of is having a natural tendency to deviate from normalcy. In such a way, they are very unstable matter with high potential within them. The static or dynamic state of equilibrium of this dosha is mainly responsible for health whereas in-equilibrium leads to the manifestation of any pathological ailment which may ultimately land into diseases. The natural behavior of dosha is the capability to contaminate, adulterate, vitiate, or create imbalance by any means.
- दुष्यन्ति इति दोषः |
- शरीर दूषणात् दोषा | - शा.पु.५
- ते एव च व्यापन्नाः प्रलयहेतवः | - सु.सू.२१/३
Locations of Dosha
These are omnipresent throughout the body. They are continuously in a state of circulation maintaining, regulating, and governing all the physiological activities throughout the body. Simultaneously, by the virtue of practicing dosha vitiating factors, the same dosha are also on the verge of deviation due to which the body is constantly under the threat of surrendering and becoming host to any disease. Based on this concept, the general location of dosha can be categorized into two as - General location & Specific location.
General location of Dosha
सर्वदेहव्यापित्वे अपि यो यास्मिन् अधिवचेन वर्तते तत् तस्य स्थानम् | - हेमाद्रि
Generally, the whole body is the residing place of Dosha, and not any single place whether subtle or gross is devoid by the presence or action of this dosha.
ते व्यापिनो अपि ह्रन्नाभ्योरधोमध्योर्ध्वसंश्रयाः | - अ.ह्.सू.१/७
However, from the point of origin of disease, there are certain broad locations spread throughout the body, where the dosha does reside. The manifestation of specific types of diseases as per dosha originates from these locations also the treatment modality is selected and assigned keeping these locations in focus.
Specific location of Dosha
Table 6:Specific location of Physical Dosha as per different Ayurveda Scholars
| Sr.No | Charak Samhita | Sushrut Samhita | Ashtanga Samgraha | Ashtanga Hridaya | Kashyap Samhita |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Pakvashaya (Large Intestine) | Pakvaadhan (Large Intestine) | Pakvashaya (Large Intestine) | Pakvashaya (Large Intestine) | Adho Nabhi (Body parts below umbilicus) |
| 2 | Purishadhan (Rectum and Anal canal) | Guda (Anal canal) | - | - | - |
| 3 | Kati (Pelvic region) | Shroni (Pelvic region) | Kati (Pelvic region) | Kati (Pelvic region) | - |
| 4 | Asthi (Bones) | - | Asthi (Bones) | Asthi (Bones) | Asthi (Bones) and Majja (Marrow, Nervous tissue) |
| 5 | Basti (Urinary Bladder), Pada (Lower extremities), Sakthi (Thighs) | - | Shrotrendriya (Sense organ for Hearing sense), Sparshanendriya (Sense organ for Tactile sense) | Shrotrendriya (Sense organ for Hearing sense), Sparshanendriya (Sense organ for Tactile sense) | - |
Relations of Dosha
Interrelation between Dosha and Mahabhuta
It is mentioned above on the same page under the constitution of Dosha.
- Vata dosha - Akasha and Vayu
- Pitta dosha - Teja or Agni
- Kapha dosha - Prithvi and Jala
Interrelation between Dosha and Dhatu
It is the mutual interdependence relation between Ashraya (one who allows to get lodge the other one) and Ashrayee (one who lodges, accumulates). Dosha generally circulates throughout the body and finds a space - Kha vaigunya, to get stagnate, lodge, accumulate thereby favoring the roots for physio-pathogenesis. It is shown in the table below -
Table 7: Interrelation between Dosha and Dushya[9]
| Sr.No | Dosha | Dushya |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vata | Asthi |
| 2 | Pitta | Rakta, Sveda |
| 3 | Kapha | Rasa, Mamsa, Meda, Majja, Shukra, Mutra, Purish |
Interrelation between Dosha and Rasa
Dosha is considered to be a group of specific properties that tend to deviate by the external supplements in terms of Dravya, Guna, and Karma by practicing specific dietary regimen and daily routine. So, the type of Rasa (taste) fluctuates the status of specific properties within the body. There are some rasa which aggravates dosha, while some pacify them. It is shown in the table below -
Table 8: Interrelation between Dosha and Rasa
| Sr.No | Dosha | Dosha Aggravting Rasa | Dosha Pacifying Rasa |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vata | Katu (Spicy), Tikta (Bitter), Kashay (Astringent) | Madhur (Sweet), Amla (Sour), Lavana (Salty) |
| 2 | Pitta | Amla (Sour), Lavana (Salty), Katu (Spicy) | Madhur (Sweet), Tikta (Bitter), Kashay (Astringent) |
| 3 | Kapha | Madhur (Sweet), Amla (Sour), Lavana (Salty) | Katu (Spicy), Tikta (Bitter), Kashay (Astringent) |
Interrelation between Dosha and Rutu
Dosha within the body are having constant impact of season and external climacteric conditions over them. So, with the change of external climacteric conditions the status of dosha too gets deviated from normalcy. However, it gets stabilized automatically by adoption and practicing of seasonal regimen guidelines mentioned in Rutucharya Adhyaya of Charak samhita. The same is highlighted in the table of Physiological Kriyakala, mentioned above.
Mutual interrelation between Rutu-Dosha-Rasa-Guna
Table 9: Interrelation between Dosha and Agni
| Sr.No | Rutu | Mahabhuta | Dosha | Rasa | Guna |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Shishir | Vayu + Akash | Vata | Tikta | Laghu, Shita |
| 2 | Vasant | Vayu + Prithvi | Kapha | Kashay | Guru, Shita |
| 3 | Grishma | Agni + Vayu | Pitta | Katu | Laghu, Ushna |
| 4 | Varsha | Prithvi + Agni | Vata | Amla | Laghu, Ushna |
| 5 | Sharad | Agni + Jala | Pitta | Lavana | Laghu, Snigdha |
| 6 | Hemant | Prithvi + Jala | Kapha | Madhur | Guru, Snigdha |
Influence of Dosha on Agni
Tridosha are the working biophysical entities influencing almost every physiological activity within the body. Dosha also affect the status of Jatharagni thereby altering the digestive capabilities of Agni. It is due to the dominancy of a group of properties of any of the Dosha. It is mentioned below -
Table 10: Interrelation between Dosha and Agni[10]
| Sr.No | Dosha | Type of Agni | Clinical picture |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vata | Visham Agni | Irregular digestion |
| 2 | Pitta | Tikshna Agni | Quick digestion with large gastric eructations |
| 3 | Kapha | Manda Agni | Slow and sluggish digestion |
Influence of Dosha on Koshta
The same dosha by the virtue of respective guna, influence the status of the mucosal gut lining which affects the intestinal environment and bowel habits. The same is mentioned in the table below -
Table 11: Interrelation between Dosha and Koshta
| Sr.No | Dosha | Type of Koshta | Clinical picture |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vata | Krura | Hard stools, Constipation, Inhibited intestinal motility, defecation discomfort with application of additional abdominal pressure |
| 2 | Pitta | Mrudu | Increased sensitivity of intestinal mucosa, Loose motions, frequent defecation habit |
| 3 | Kapha | Madhyam | Semi solid, soft, firm consistency of stool, defecation with ease |
Functions of Dosha
Vata, Pitta, Kapha in their normal limits, while circulating throughout the whole body governs all the activities of the body in terms of rate, rhythm, pace, regulation, secretion, acceleration, suppression, movements, tissue cycle viability, and many more.
The same dosha due to the influence of substantial etiological factors may undergo rise or downfall thereby ready to create unwholesome effects in the body while the same in their normalcy are responsible for wholesome actions. The overall wholesome effects of Dosha being in their normal limits are reflected in terms of – Upchaya (proper growth and development of organs), Bala (strength, vigor), Varna (skin complexion), Prasannata (inner blissful state of the psyche).[11] Vata, Pitta, Kapha are responsible to control a specific group of actions or functions.
Functions of Vata dosha
- Harsha – Utsaah (cheerfulness, enthusiasm)
- Shvas-Ni shvas (respiratory cycles)
- Cheshta pravartak (initiator of all physical, psychological and speech-related activities)
- Vega pravartan (the reason behind the development of physiological urges)
- Uccha Avachanam Chesta (accelerator and inhibitor of all activities)
- Niyanta Praneta cha Manasa (controller and regulator of psyche)
- Sarvendriya Udyojak (stimulates sensory faculties for their respective work)
- Sarvaindriyarthanaam abhivodha (the reason behind carrying the sensation through sensory faculties to respective centers)
- Sarva sharir dhatu vyuhkara (regulates and control tissue cycles and viability)
- Sandhankara sharirasya (key to annex or approximate the molecules)
- Pravartako vacha (stimulator of speech)
- Prakruti shabda sparsha (origin of touch and sound)
- Shrotra sparshan yo mulam (is the root cause of auditory and tactile sense faculties)
- Samirno agne (provokes the internal heat)
- Dosha sanshoshan (absorption of other dosha)
- Kshepta bahirmalanam (expels ejaculatory secretions)
- Sthulanu strotasam bhetta (capable to penetrate and pierce subtle to gross structures within the body)
- Karta garbhakruti naam (plays a role in the division of cells thereby helps Garbha to attain a shape)
- Ayusho anu vrutti pratyay bhuto (helps to sustain the integrity for continuity of life)
Functions of Pitta dosha
- Pakti (digestion)
- Ushma (heat)
- Darshan (vision process)
- Kshut-Trut (hunger and thirst)
- Ruchi (taste appreciation)
- Prabha (skin lustre)
- Medha (grasping power)
- Dhi (retention power)
- Shourya (courage, valor)
- Tanu mardav (delicacy of skin texture)
Functions of Kapha dosha
- Sandhi sanshleshan (lubrication within joints)
- Snehan (oleation)
- Ropan (healing and repair)
- Bala (strength)
- Sthiratva (stability)
- Kshama (forbearance)
- Gauravam (heaviness)
- Vrushata (fertility)
- Alobha (non-greediness)
- Snigdhatva (unctuousness)
Clinical aspects of Dosha
Diagnosis of the abnormal state of Dosha
वाते पित्ते कफे चैव क्षीणे लक्षणमुच्यते| कर्मणः प्राकृताद्धानिर्वृद्धिर्वाऽपि विरोधिनाम् || Cha.Sa.Su.18/52
Any decrease in Vata, pitta, and Kapha is thus indicated by a decrease in their natural functions or an increase in functions of opposite dosha. (this is indicated by the properties associated with any of these doshas, for example, reduced unctuousness indicates a decrease in Kapha, etc).
दोषप्रकृतिवैशेष्यं नियतं वृद्धिलक्षणम्| दोषाणां प्रकृतिर्हानिर्वृद्धिश्चैवं परीक्ष्यते || Cha.Sa.Su.18/53
Conversely, any aggravation in dosha is indicated by an increase in their normal functions. Thus normalcy, decrease, and aggravation of dosha are examined.
Diseases due to Dosha
There are three types of diseases – Nija (endogenous), agantuja (exogenous), and manasa (psychological). Nija vyadhi (endogenous diseases) are caused by the vitiation of body doshas (Vata, Pitta, and Kapha). Agantuja (exogenous diseases) are caused bhuta (invisible organisms), poisonous substances, wind, fire, and trauma. Manasa (psychological diseases) are caused by a conflict between not getting the desired things and getting non desired things.
Treatment for Dosha
प्रशाम्यत्यौषधैः पूर्वो दैवयुक्तिव्यपाश्रयैः| मानसो ज्ञानविज्ञानधैर्यस्मृतिसमाधिभिः || Cha.Sa.Su.1/58
The former ones (sharira dosha) are pacified by remedial measures of divine and rational qualities while the latter ones (manas dosha) can be treated with general and specific knowledge, temperance, memory, and concentration.
दोषाः क्षीणा बृंहयितव्याः, कुपिताः प्रशमयितव्याः, वृद्धा निर्हर्तव्याः, समाः परिपाल्या इति सिद्धान्तः || Su.Sa.Chi.33/3
The principle of treatment is to augment the loss or deficiency, to pacify the aggravation and reduced or remove increment of the Dosha and maintain them in a stare of healthy equilibrium.
Table 12: Selective treatment modality and substance for Dosha
| Sr.No | Dosha | Type of Treatment modality | Dravya |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vata | Basti (Therapeutic Enema) | Taila (Oil) |
| 2 | Pitta | Virechan (Therapeutic Purgation) | Ghruta (Ghee / Clarified butter) |
| 3 | Kapha | Vaman (Therapeutic Emesis) | Madhu (Honey) |
Substances for internal therapeutic uses [12]-
- Honey (madhu): Alleviates Kapha and Pitta
- Ghee (ghrita): Alleviates Vata and Pitta
- Sesame oil (tila taila): Alleviates Vata and Kapha
References
- ↑ National AYUSH Morbidity and Standardized Terminologies Electronic Portal by Ministry of AYUSH Available on http://namstp.ayush.gov.in/#/sat
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Deerghanjivitiya. Reprint 2007. Pg. No. 25. URL. http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/index.php?title=Deerghanjiviteeya_Adhyaya.
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Deerghanjivitiya. Reprint 2007. Pg. No. 27.
- ↑ Yadavji Trikamji Acharya. Sushrut Samhita. Nidan Sthan. Vatavyadhi Nidan. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan. Reprint 2012. Pg. No. 257.
- ↑ Kaviraj Atridev Gupta. Ashtang Hridayam. Sutra Sthan. Ayushkamiya. Reprint 2007. Pg. No. 27.
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Vatakalakaliya Adhyaya. Reprint 2007. Pg. No. 172.
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Jwara Chikitsa. Reprint 2007.
- ↑ Yadavji Trikamji Acharya. Sushrut Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Vranaprashniya. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan. Reprint 2012. Pg. No. 89.
- ↑ Kaviraj Atridev Gupta. Ashtang Hridaya. Sutra Sthan. Doshadi Vijyaniya Adhyay. Reprint 2008.
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Chikitsa Sthan. Grahani Chikitsa Adhyay. Reprint 2007. URL.http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/index.php?title=Grahani_Chikitsa_Adhyaya
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Maharoga Adhyay. Reprint 2007. URL. http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/index.php?title=Maharoga_Adhyaya
- ↑ Kashinath Shastri. Charak Samhita. Sutra Sthan. Yajjah Purushiya Adhyay. Reprint 2007. URL. http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/mediawiki-1.32.1/index.php?title=Yajjah_Purushiya_Adhyaya.