Difference between revisions of "Atulya gotra"

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== Atulya gotra in context to historical origins and cultural background ==
 
== Atulya gotra in context to historical origins and cultural background ==
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Marriages in same gotra are prohibited as per Hindu religious customs as the process of marriage should be within the exogamous units. Intermarriage is advised to be avoided to prevent family members' decent from a common ancestor. <br/>According to the text Dharmasindhu, Kashyapa, Atri, Vasistha, Vishvamitra, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni and Bharadvaja are seven sages (also known as saptarishi). Agastya and Jambu maharishi are also considered among 8 Gotra. The progeny of these eight sages is declared to be gotras. These are the primary 8 gotra and further branching leads to the establishment of 108 gotra.<ref name="ref7">Kashinath Updhyaya, Dharmasindhu, reprinted 1986, Tritiya Pariccheda Purvardha, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi , Page No. 191</ref> <br/>In the Brahmin caste, 49 Gotras are reckoned and supposed to be sprung from and named after celebrated teachers or leaders like, Atreya, Vashishta, Shaṇḍilya, Kashyapa, Gautama, Bharadvaja etc. According to this Hindu tradition, every gotra has a specific gotra-nama (surname) and gotra-devata (family deity).<ref name="ref8">Singer, Milton; Cohn, Bernard S., eds. (2007). Structure and change in Indian society (1. paperback printing ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: AldineTransaction. p. 408. ISBN 978-0202361383.</ref> As per Manusmriti, number of gotra are 24 in number. However, the surname of person is kept different from gotra. <br/>One sage can have disciples from the same gotra and the same gotra can be found across different castes. These were primarily adopted by Brahmin but are also found in a few Kshatriyas and Vaishya as well. <br/>As per Manusmriti, there is no harm in sagotra marriage if the individuals are not related for six generations on both maternal and paternal sides. (सपिण्डता तु पुरुषे सप्तमे विनिवर्तते । समानोदकभावस्तु जन्मनाम्नोरवेदने |) which means that sapindata or the familial lineage ends after seven generations.<ref name="ref9">Suredrakumar, Manusmriti with hindi translation and Anusheelana commentary , 5th Adhyaya Verse No. 60 , Sixth edition, Aarsha Sahitya Prachara Trust , Delhi , Page No. 426</ref> The Manusmriti mentions that marriage within the 3 generations of the maternal side and the same gotra on the paternal side is prohibited for all three varna.<ref name="ref10">Suredrakumar, Manusmriti with hindi translation and Anusheelana commentary , 6th Adhyaya Verse No. 142 , Sixth edition, Aarsha Sahitya Prachara Trust , Delhi , Page No. 500</ref> Texts like Dharmasindhu and Yagyavalkalamriti<ref name="ref11">Yajnyavalakal Smriti with Mitaksara commentary of Vijnaneshwara, Chapter No. 3,  printed 1918, Panini Office , Bahadurganj Allahabad , Page No. 105</ref> also mention the same principle considering the factor of gotra in marriage. Dharmasindhu mentions the Chandrayana Tapa (a fasting ritual) and dnyana (knowledge) Prayashchitta (atonement) for the negative implications of marriage in same gotra.<ref name="ref12">Kashinath Updhyaya, Dharmasindhu, reprinted 1986, Tritiya Pariccheda Purvardha, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, Page No. 198</ref> <br/>Other references of the Sagotra marriages in Indian cultures are mentioned in Agni Purana, Rigveda, Mahabharat, Shatapatha Brahmin and other texts like Bible, Quran etc.<ref name="ref13">Rajbali Pandey, Hindu saṁskāras: socio-religious study of the Hindu sacraments, Motilal Banarasidas, Page No. 174</ref>
+
<p style="text-align:justify;">Marriages in same gotra are prohibited as per Hindu religious customs as the process of marriage should be within the exogamous units. Intermarriage is advised to be avoided to prevent family members' decent from a common ancestor. <br/>According to the text Dharmasindhu, Kashyapa, Atri, Vasistha, Vishvamitra, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni and Bharadvaja are seven sages (also known as saptarishi). Agastya and Jambu maharishi are also considered among 8 Gotra. The progeny of these eight sages is declared to be gotras. These are the primary 8 gotra and further branching leads to the establishment of 108 gotra.<ref name="ref7">Kashinath Updhyaya, Dharmasindhu, reprinted 1986, Tritiya Pariccheda Purvardha, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi , Page No. 191</ref> <br/>In the Brahmin caste, 49 Gotras are reckoned and supposed to be sprung from and named after celebrated teachers or leaders like, Atreya, Vashishta, Shaṇḍilya, Kashyapa, Gautama, Bharadvaja etc. According to this Hindu tradition, every gotra has a specific gotra-nama (surname) and gotra-devata (family deity).<ref name="ref8">Singer, Milton; Cohn, Bernard S., eds. (2007). Structure and change in Indian society (1. paperback printing ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: AldineTransaction. p. 408. ISBN 978-0202361383.</ref> As per Manusmriti, number of gotra are 24 in number. However, the surname of person is kept different from gotra. <br/>One sage can have disciples from the same gotra and the same gotra can be found across different castes. These were primarily adopted by Brahmin but are also found in a few Kshatriyas and Vaishya as well. <br/>As per Manusmriti, there is no harm in sagotra marriage if the individuals are not related for six generations on both maternal and paternal sides. (सपिण्डता तु पुरुषे सप्तमे विनिवर्तते । समानोदकभावस्तु जन्मनाम्नोरवेदने |) which means that sapindata or the familial lineage ends after seven generations.<ref name="ref9">Suredrakumar, Manusmriti with hindi translation and Anusheelana commentary , 5th Adhyaya Verse No. 60 , Sixth edition, Aarsha Sahitya Prachara Trust , Delhi , Page No. 426</ref> The Manusmriti mentions that marriage within the 3 generations of the maternal side and the same gotra on the paternal side is prohibited for all three varna.<ref name="ref10">Suredrakumar, Manusmriti with hindi translation and Anusheelana commentary , 6th Adhyaya Verse No. 142 , Sixth edition, Aarsha Sahitya Prachara Trust , Delhi , Page No. 500</ref> Texts like Dharmasindhu and Yagyavalkalamriti<ref name="ref11">Yajnyavalakal Smriti with Mitaksara commentary of Vijnaneshwara, Chapter No. 3,  printed 1918, Panini Office , Bahadurganj Allahabad , Page No. 105</ref> also mention the same principle considering the factor of gotra in marriage. Dharmasindhu mentions the Chandrayana Tapa (a fasting ritual) and dnyana (knowledge) Prayashchitta (atonement) for the negative implications of marriage in same gotra.<ref name="ref12">Kashinath Updhyaya, Dharmasindhu, reprinted 1986, Tritiya Pariccheda Purvardha, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, Page No. 198</ref> <br/>Other references of the Sagotra marriages in Indian cultures are mentioned in Agni Purana, Rigveda, Mahabharat, Shatapatha Brahmin and other texts like Bible, Quran etc.<ref name="ref13">Rajbali Pandey, Hindu saṁskāras: socio-religious study of the Hindu sacraments, Motilal Banarasidas, Page No. 174</ref></p>
 +
 
 +
== The concept of Atulya Gotra in the purview of Ayurveda ==
 +
<p style="text-align:justify;">Charak has dedicated Shareerathe name of the entire chapter depicting the origin of garbha or embryo by the name “Atulya Gotriya Shareera,” to underline the importance of this concept. [Chakrapani on Cha., Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/1] <br/>The progeny belonging to same gotra as that of the father is appreciated as per principles of Ayurveda. [Ashtang Sangraha Uttara Tantra 1/26] <br/>Shashilekha Teeka mentions gotra as the nomenclature of families inspired by sages like <i>Vashishta</i>. These are popular in the public domain (<i>lokashahstra</i>). [Shashilekha commentary on Ashtang Sangraha Shareera Sthana 1/2] Chakrapani also mentions Bharadvaja as one of the gotra besides the Atreya Gotra. [Chakrapani on Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 1/3, Chakrapani on Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 3/25]. Gangadhara has also quoted the Panini Sutra reference to throw light upon this aspect. [Gangadhara commentary on Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/2] <br/>Ayurveda also endorses the marriages or sexual relation between the man and woman who are of dissimilar gotra. The marriage between those having same gotra is prohibited as per all the texts mentioned in Ayurveda. [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/3, Ashtang Sangraha Shareera Sthana 1/2] Shashilekha further elaborates the reason behind this arrangement to avoid the transmission of diseases within the families and to give rise to healthy and beautiful progeny.
 +
Chakrapani mentions that sexual relations within individuals of same gotra is reflective of improper conduct (adharma) and is prohibited by dharmashashtra. [Chakrapani commentary on Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/3] <br/>Female with different clan (atulya gotra stree) is considered to be ideal for purpose of obtaining ideal progeny. [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 2/15] <br/>Sushruta and Ashtang Sangraha also condemn the sexual relations with woman of same gotra (Sa-Gotra or Eka-Gotra). [Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 24/116, 122 and Ashtang Sangraha Sutra Sthana 9/50]. <br/>Sushruta mentions that sexual relations between the individuals of same gotra can lead to many complications and even death of the person. [Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 24/116, 122] Ashtang Sangraha mentions the prevalence of kula sanchari roga like paingalya (handicap), mukata (deaf and dumbness) as a result of inbreeding. <br/>Kashyapa Samhita also has a chapter dedicated to this concept , similar to Charaka Samhita stated as “Asamanagotriya Adhyaya” in Shareera Sthana, where the other concepts related to embryology are highlighted as well. [Kashyapa Samhita Shareera Sthana] <br/>Bhela Samhita mentions the Asamanagotriya Shareera Adhyaya in Shareera Sthana also mentioning the similar concepts as stated by Charaka. [Bhela Samhita Shareera Sthana 3<sup>rd</sup> Adhyaya] </p>
 +
 
 +
== Logical interpretation of  concept of Gotra ==
 +
<p style="text-align:justify;">The consideration of the factor of gotra in marriage seems to avoid the transmission of genetic or hereditary diseases in families. People within the gotra are considered as siblings and marrying such a person can enhance chances of genetically transferred diseases to the child. This highlights the concept of beeja dushti as mentioned in Shareera Sthana. [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 4/30] Thus, this intermarriage might also hamper the genetic diversification. This can also help to avoid transmission of unfavourable genes and promote alliance with the different families. This concept is applicable to various aspects like sahaja vyadhi (congenital diseases) [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 14], kulaja vyadhi (hereditary diseases) [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 6], aadibalapravritta vyadhi [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 24], beeja dushtijanya vikara (disease due to defective sperm or ovum) [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 4] maternal facors (matrija) and paternal (pitrija bhava) [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 3] mentioned in Ayurveda.  </p>
 +
 
 +
== Contemporary approach ==
 +
=== Consanguineous marriage ===
 +
<p style="text-align:justify;">Consanguineous marriage is made up of two words comprising of “Con” meaning same and sanguinous meaning blood relations. Thus, it is the relation between 2 individuals having same blood relations and a common ancestor. As per clinical genetics, a consanguineous marriage is defined as a union between two individuals who are related as second cousins or closer, with the inbreeding coefficient (F) equal or higher than 0.0156 where (F) represents a measure of the proportion of loci at which the offspring of a consanguineous union is expected to inherit identical gene copies from both parents.<ref name="ref14"></ref> As per WHO statistics, unions contracted between persons biologically related as second cousins or closer are categorized as consanguineous, having one or more ancestors in common no more remote than a great-grandparent (consag.net; WHO document 1997, EUROCAT).<ref name="ref15"></ref> Consanguineous marriages are culturally and socially favoured in populations of North Africa, West Asia and South India, and constitute 20–50% of all marriages, with first cousins unions accounting for almost one-third of all marriages. These are very uncommon in countries like the USA and the United Kingdom but favoured in Middle East , Saudi Arabian, Africa and Pakistan.<ref name="ref16"></ref> Consanguinity is still a common aspect amongst Indian communities where about 30-40% of Muslims in northern India, a few communities in southern India, and parts of Maharashtra witness consanguineous marriages.<ref name="ref17"></ref> Research has proved that a high rate of consanguineous marriages within the tribe and community can result in the transmission of a recessive gene and an increase in autosomal recessive disorders like mental retardation, dysmorphisms, congenital anomalies etc.<ref name="ref18"></ref> <br/>Darwin states that the consequence of close inbreeding or interbreeding carried on for a long time may lead to loss of size, constitutional vigor, and fertility, sometimes accompanied by malformations.<ref name="ref19"></ref> This leads to hybridization and widening of the genetic pool leading to gene diversification. <br/></p>
 +
 
  
 
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Revision as of 13:15, 8 April 2024

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Atulya Gotra is unique concept considering the aspect of marriage within the individuals of the same kin or lineage mentioned both in Ayurveda and ancient cultural, religious, and philosophical texts. This is in line with the consanguinity that is still prevalent in many regions like the Middle East, Arabic countries, and a few parts of India as well. This article deals with the scientific aspects of gotra, specificity in clans (atulya gotra), and consanguinity mentioned across the literature.

Introduction

Man being a social animal , many social institutions like caste systems and other religious practices have been prevalent as a part of cultural practices. Caste is one such practice peculiar to Indian subcontinent and not only limited to the Hindu religion but also practiced by a large extent by Muslims, Christiana and Sikh traditions. Varna is termed as the word attributed to the four fold division of the society into Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Kshudra. In ancient Indian subcontinent, varna is considered to be major classification of the population, while Jati is termed as subclassification or many a times regional classification of the castes. The caste is determined by birth and many a times in ancient India the caste was also attributed with the occupation and other social norms commonly practiced by the members of the particular clan. The caste groups are considered to be endogamous and hence the marriages betweeb two distinct castes (inter caste marriages) were not favoured in ancient India.[1] This is the reason why the mention of Atulya gotra is commonly mentioned in many texts focusing on Dharmashashtra (social and religious texts), Nitishashtra (political science), Ayurveda etc.
Gotra is term focusing on the famiy organisation in Brahmanical systems. It is the evidence of patrilineal sibship where the descendants trace back to common ancestors. The Gotra were assigned after the Pravara or names of Rishi who were considered to be the first bearers of the systems. The Atulya Gotra is principle of exogamy where a man must marry outside his/her own heriditary group or clan most popular in brahmanical family. The main reason behind this may include many factors like promotion of genetic diversification , extension of cultural and familial traditions.[2]

Contributors
Section/Chapter/topic Concepts/Atulya gotra
Authors Bhojani M. K. 1
Joglekar Aishwarya2
Reviewers & Editors Basisht G.3
Deole Y.S.4
Affiliations 1 Department of Sharir Kriya, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi, India
2 Department of Samhita Siddhant, All India Institute of Ayurveda, New Delhi, India
3 Rheumatologist, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A.
4 Department of Kayachikitsa, G. J. Patel Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India
Correspondence emails meera.samhita@aiia.gov.in
carakasamhita@gmail.com
Publisher Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre, I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, and Symbiohealth Foundation, India
Date of publication: April 10, 2024
DOI 10.47468/CSNE.2024.e01.s09.162

What is gotra?

Gotra is a Sanskrit term meaning family, race, lineage, tribe, herd of kin, subdivision, genus, class, species, all meaning belonging to the same clan or family, etc.[3] It denotes the group of individuals having common ancestors or having the same paternal origin roots from common male lines.

Definition of gotra

Paṇini defines gotra as “apatyam pautraprabhrti gotram (IV. 1. 162) Gotra can be understood as the grandson or lower descendent and not exactly the immediate offspring.[4]
As Rigveda, gotra simply means to move forward i.e. lineage of family line.[5]

Synonyms of gotra

Amarkosha and Shabdakalpadruma mentions the synonyms of gotra like santati (progeny), janana (procreation), kula (race), abhijana (family), anvaya (succession), vansha (lineage) etc.[6]

Atulya gotra in context to historical origins and cultural background

Marriages in same gotra are prohibited as per Hindu religious customs as the process of marriage should be within the exogamous units. Intermarriage is advised to be avoided to prevent family members' decent from a common ancestor.
According to the text Dharmasindhu, Kashyapa, Atri, Vasistha, Vishvamitra, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni and Bharadvaja are seven sages (also known as saptarishi). Agastya and Jambu maharishi are also considered among 8 Gotra. The progeny of these eight sages is declared to be gotras. These are the primary 8 gotra and further branching leads to the establishment of 108 gotra.[7]
In the Brahmin caste, 49 Gotras are reckoned and supposed to be sprung from and named after celebrated teachers or leaders like, Atreya, Vashishta, Shaṇḍilya, Kashyapa, Gautama, Bharadvaja etc. According to this Hindu tradition, every gotra has a specific gotra-nama (surname) and gotra-devata (family deity).[8] As per Manusmriti, number of gotra are 24 in number. However, the surname of person is kept different from gotra.
One sage can have disciples from the same gotra and the same gotra can be found across different castes. These were primarily adopted by Brahmin but are also found in a few Kshatriyas and Vaishya as well.
As per Manusmriti, there is no harm in sagotra marriage if the individuals are not related for six generations on both maternal and paternal sides. (सपिण्डता तु पुरुषे सप्तमे विनिवर्तते । समानोदकभावस्तु जन्मनाम्नोरवेदने |) which means that sapindata or the familial lineage ends after seven generations.[9] The Manusmriti mentions that marriage within the 3 generations of the maternal side and the same gotra on the paternal side is prohibited for all three varna.[10] Texts like Dharmasindhu and Yagyavalkalamriti[11] also mention the same principle considering the factor of gotra in marriage. Dharmasindhu mentions the Chandrayana Tapa (a fasting ritual) and dnyana (knowledge) Prayashchitta (atonement) for the negative implications of marriage in same gotra.[12]
Other references of the Sagotra marriages in Indian cultures are mentioned in Agni Purana, Rigveda, Mahabharat, Shatapatha Brahmin and other texts like Bible, Quran etc.[13]

The concept of Atulya Gotra in the purview of Ayurveda

Charak has dedicated Shareerathe name of the entire chapter depicting the origin of garbha or embryo by the name “Atulya Gotriya Shareera,” to underline the importance of this concept. [Chakrapani on Cha., Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/1]
The progeny belonging to same gotra as that of the father is appreciated as per principles of Ayurveda. [Ashtang Sangraha Uttara Tantra 1/26]
Shashilekha Teeka mentions gotra as the nomenclature of families inspired by sages like Vashishta. These are popular in the public domain (lokashahstra). [Shashilekha commentary on Ashtang Sangraha Shareera Sthana 1/2] Chakrapani also mentions Bharadvaja as one of the gotra besides the Atreya Gotra. [Chakrapani on Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 1/3, Chakrapani on Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 3/25]. Gangadhara has also quoted the Panini Sutra reference to throw light upon this aspect. [Gangadhara commentary on Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/2]
Ayurveda also endorses the marriages or sexual relation between the man and woman who are of dissimilar gotra. The marriage between those having same gotra is prohibited as per all the texts mentioned in Ayurveda. [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/3, Ashtang Sangraha Shareera Sthana 1/2] Shashilekha further elaborates the reason behind this arrangement to avoid the transmission of diseases within the families and to give rise to healthy and beautiful progeny. Chakrapani mentions that sexual relations within individuals of same gotra is reflective of improper conduct (adharma) and is prohibited by dharmashashtra. [Chakrapani commentary on Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 2/3]
Female with different clan (atulya gotra stree) is considered to be ideal for purpose of obtaining ideal progeny. [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 2/15]
Sushruta and Ashtang Sangraha also condemn the sexual relations with woman of same gotra (Sa-Gotra or Eka-Gotra). [Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 24/116, 122 and Ashtang Sangraha Sutra Sthana 9/50].
Sushruta mentions that sexual relations between the individuals of same gotra can lead to many complications and even death of the person. [Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 24/116, 122] Ashtang Sangraha mentions the prevalence of kula sanchari roga like paingalya (handicap), mukata (deaf and dumbness) as a result of inbreeding.
Kashyapa Samhita also has a chapter dedicated to this concept , similar to Charaka Samhita stated as “Asamanagotriya Adhyaya” in Shareera Sthana, where the other concepts related to embryology are highlighted as well. [Kashyapa Samhita Shareera Sthana]
Bhela Samhita mentions the Asamanagotriya Shareera Adhyaya in Shareera Sthana also mentioning the similar concepts as stated by Charaka. [Bhela Samhita Shareera Sthana 3rd Adhyaya]

Logical interpretation of concept of Gotra

The consideration of the factor of gotra in marriage seems to avoid the transmission of genetic or hereditary diseases in families. People within the gotra are considered as siblings and marrying such a person can enhance chances of genetically transferred diseases to the child. This highlights the concept of beeja dushti as mentioned in Shareera Sthana. [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 4/30] Thus, this intermarriage might also hamper the genetic diversification. This can also help to avoid transmission of unfavourable genes and promote alliance with the different families. This concept is applicable to various aspects like sahaja vyadhi (congenital diseases) [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 14], kulaja vyadhi (hereditary diseases) [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 6], aadibalapravritta vyadhi [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 24], beeja dushtijanya vikara (disease due to defective sperm or ovum) [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 4] maternal facors (matrija) and paternal (pitrija bhava) [Cha. Sa. Shareera Sthana 3] mentioned in Ayurveda.

Contemporary approach

Consanguineous marriage

Consanguineous marriage is made up of two words comprising of “Con” meaning same and sanguinous meaning blood relations. Thus, it is the relation between 2 individuals having same blood relations and a common ancestor. As per clinical genetics, a consanguineous marriage is defined as a union between two individuals who are related as second cousins or closer, with the inbreeding coefficient (F) equal or higher than 0.0156 where (F) represents a measure of the proportion of loci at which the offspring of a consanguineous union is expected to inherit identical gene copies from both parents.[14] As per WHO statistics, unions contracted between persons biologically related as second cousins or closer are categorized as consanguineous, having one or more ancestors in common no more remote than a great-grandparent (consag.net; WHO document 1997, EUROCAT).[15] Consanguineous marriages are culturally and socially favoured in populations of North Africa, West Asia and South India, and constitute 20–50% of all marriages, with first cousins unions accounting for almost one-third of all marriages. These are very uncommon in countries like the USA and the United Kingdom but favoured in Middle East , Saudi Arabian, Africa and Pakistan.[16] Consanguinity is still a common aspect amongst Indian communities where about 30-40% of Muslims in northern India, a few communities in southern India, and parts of Maharashtra witness consanguineous marriages.[17] Research has proved that a high rate of consanguineous marriages within the tribe and community can result in the transmission of a recessive gene and an increase in autosomal recessive disorders like mental retardation, dysmorphisms, congenital anomalies etc.[18]
Darwin states that the consequence of close inbreeding or interbreeding carried on for a long time may lead to loss of size, constitutional vigor, and fertility, sometimes accompanied by malformations.[19] This leads to hybridization and widening of the genetic pool leading to gene diversification.


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References

  1. ↑ Deshpande, Satish. 2003. Contemporary India: A Sociological View. Penguin Books. New Delhi.
  2. ↑ John Brough, The early Brahmanical system of Gotra and Pravara- A translation of the Gotra Pravara Manjari of Purushottama Pandita , 1953 , Cambridge University Press, Page No. 1-10
  3. ↑ Available from: https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/webtc1/index.php
  4. ↑ Srisha Chandra Vasu, Astadhayayi of Panini translated into English, Chaturtha Adhyaya, Prathama Paada, Book No. 4, Published by Sindhu Charana Bose, published 1896, Page No. 688
  5. ↑ Saraswati, Swami Dayanand (2010). Rigvedadi-Bhashya-Bhumika. Vijaykumar Govindram Hasanand. p. 199.
  6. ↑ Available from: https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=SKD&page=2-355-b
  7. ↑ Kashinath Updhyaya, Dharmasindhu, reprinted 1986, Tritiya Pariccheda Purvardha, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi , Page No. 191
  8. ↑ Singer, Milton; Cohn, Bernard S., eds. (2007). Structure and change in Indian society (1. paperback printing ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: AldineTransaction. p. 408. ISBN 978-0202361383.
  9. ↑ Suredrakumar, Manusmriti with hindi translation and Anusheelana commentary , 5th Adhyaya Verse No. 60 , Sixth edition, Aarsha Sahitya Prachara Trust , Delhi , Page No. 426
  10. ↑ Suredrakumar, Manusmriti with hindi translation and Anusheelana commentary , 6th Adhyaya Verse No. 142 , Sixth edition, Aarsha Sahitya Prachara Trust , Delhi , Page No. 500
  11. ↑ Yajnyavalakal Smriti with Mitaksara commentary of Vijnaneshwara, Chapter No. 3, printed 1918, Panini Office , Bahadurganj Allahabad , Page No. 105
  12. ↑ Kashinath Updhyaya, Dharmasindhu, reprinted 1986, Tritiya Pariccheda Purvardha, Sri Satguru Publications, New Delhi, Page No. 198
  13. ↑ Rajbali Pandey, Hindu saṁskāras: socio-religious study of the Hindu sacraments, Motilal Banarasidas, Page No. 174
  14. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ref14
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ref15
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ref16
  17. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ref17
  18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ref18
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ref19
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