Difference between revisions of "Rasa dhatu"

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|title=Rasa dhatu
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|keywords=Rasa dhatu in ayurveda,Rasa dhatu meaning,Rasa dhatu,Charak Samhita,Rasa dhatu Ayurveda,Panchabhautika constitution and properties,Formation and metabolism of rasa dhatu,rasa dhatu Location,Metabolic byproducts and waste products (Upadhatu and mala),Characteristics of plasma, serum, Channels of transportation and transformation of rasa dhatu (rasavaha srotas), skin, ,role of rasa dhatu in circulation,rasa dhatu Importance in diagnosis,Role of rasa dhatu as vitiated factor in disease,Principles of management of diseases of rasa dhatu,Best herbs in management (agryasamgraha)
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|description=Rasa dhatu is a body component, nutrient fluid similar to plasma
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|image=http://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/resources/assets/ogimgs.jpg
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|image_alt=carak samhita
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|type=article
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}}
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<p style="text-align:justify;">The word rasa dhatu literally means the component of the body with nutrients and essence. There are two forms of rasa related to body physiology. Ahara rasa is the essence of food after the first level of digestion by factors responsible for digestion and metabolism  (jatharagni) in the stomach. The second form is rasa dhatu. It is the component formed after the ahara rasa gets acted upon by rasa dhatvagni.
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</p>
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{{Infobox
  
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The word ‘''rasa dhatu''’ literally means the component of body with nutrients and essence. There are two forms of ''rasa'' related to body physiology. ''Ahara rasa'' is the essence of food after the first level of digestion by ''jatharagni'' (factors responsible for digestion and metabolism) in the stomach. The second form is ''rasa dhatu''. It is the component formed after the ''ahara rasa'' gets acted upon by ''rasa dhatvagni.''
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|title =  Contributors
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|label1 = Section/Chapter/topic
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|data1 = [[Sharira]] / [[Dhatu]] / Rasa Dhatu
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|label2 = Authors
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|data2 = [[Yogesh Deole|Deole Y.S.]], Anagha S. 
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|label3 = Reviewer and editor
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|data3 = [[Gopal Basisht|Basisht G.]]
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 +
|label4 = Affiliation
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|data4 = [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre]], I.P.G.T.& R.A., Jamnagar
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|label5 = Correspondence email:
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|data5 = carakasamhita@gmail.com
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|label6 = Publisher
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|data6 = [[Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre]], I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, India
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|label7 = Date of publication:
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|data7 = April 16, 2020
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|label8 = DOI
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|data8 = [https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s09.013 10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s09.013]
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}}
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==Etymology and derivation==
  
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==Etymology and derivation:==
 
 
The word ‘rasa’ is derived from the Sanskrit root “ras” having the meaning of taste, to relish, to perceive, to feel, to desire.<ref> Monier Williams (1899), “रस्”, in A Sanskrit–English Dictionary, new edition, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, OCLC 458052227, page 0869 </ref>
 
The word ‘rasa’ is derived from the Sanskrit root “ras” having the meaning of taste, to relish, to perceive, to feel, to desire.<ref> Monier Williams (1899), “रस्”, in A Sanskrit–English Dictionary, new edition, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, OCLC 458052227, page 0869 </ref>
  
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''Rasa'' is derived from the root ‘''gatau''’ which means moving. As the nutrient fluid is continuously circulated in our body, it is known as rasa.[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/13]
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Rasa is derived from the root ‘gatau’ which means moving. As the nutrient fluid is continuously circulated in our body, it is known as rasa.[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/13]
  
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==Synonyms: ==
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==Synonyms ==
  
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• ''Adyadhatu''(first dhatu) [Ash. Hr. Sutra Sthana 13/25]
+
• Adyadhatu(first [[dhatu]]) [A.Hr.Sutra Sthana 13/25]
  
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• ''Aharaparinama dhatu'' (transformed from food) [Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 1/23]
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• Aharaparinama [[dhatu]](transformed from food) [Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 1/23]
  
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• ''Prasada'' and ''sara'' are the synonyms of ''rasa'' in the context of ''ahararasa.''
+
• Prasada and Sara are the synonyms of rasa in the context of ahara rasa.
  
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==Meanings in different contexts: ==
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== Meanings in different contexts ==
  
 
The word rasa has a wide range of meanings like taste, extract/juice, meat soup, mercury.  
 
The word rasa has a wide range of meanings like taste, extract/juice, meat soup, mercury.  
  
−
In context of body components, the terms like ahararasa, rasa dhatu and sharirarasa/garbharasa are described.
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In the context of body components, the terms like ahara rasa, rasa dhatu and sharirarasa/garbharasa are described.
  
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The word ‘garbharasa’ is applied to denote ojas (essence or vitality) in embryonic life. This is transformed into unctuous body fluids. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 30/10]. It is known as ‘sharira rasa’ in later life leading to formation of ojas. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 30/11].
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The word ‘garbharasa’ is applied to denote essence or vitality (ojas) in embryonic life. This is transformed into unctuous body fluids. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 30/10]. It is known as ‘sharira rasa’ in later life leading to the formation of ojas. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 30/11].
  
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==Panchabhautika constitution and properties:==
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==Panchabhautika constitution and properties==
  
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The rasa dhatu has [[jala mahabhuta]] predominance in its constitution. It possesses ''drava'' (liquidity), ''sara'' (fluidity), ''manda''(opaque), ''snigdha''(viscous) and ''pichchila''(unctuous) properties.<ref name=Dwarakanath>Dwarkanath C. Introduction to Kayachikitsa. Chaukhambha Orientalia. Varanasi; 1996. Third edition.pg.320</ref>
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The rasa dhatu has [[jala mahabhuta]] predominance in its constitution. It possesses liquidity(drava), fluidity (sara), opaque(manda), viscous(snigdha) and unctuous(pichchila) properties.<ref name=Dwarakanath>Dwarkanath C. Introduction to Kayachikitsa. Chaukhambha Orientalia. Varanasi; 1996. Third edition.pg.320</ref>
  
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==Formation and metabolism of ''rasa dhatu''==
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== Physiological aspects ==
  
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''Rasa dhatu'' is formed from ''ahara rasa'' (essence of food). The ingested food is disintegrated into two parts: ''prasada'' (essence or useful part) and ''kitta'' (waste). The ''prasada'' is called ''ahara rasa'' (essence of food). This essence is transformed into a nutrient fluid called ‘''rasa dhatu''’. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 28/4]. It is the ultrafine form of ''ahara rasa''. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3]
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=== Formation,circulation and metabolism of rasa dhatu ===
  
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The ''rasa dhatu'' is further acted upon by ''rasa dhatvagni''. It is divided into two portions. The first portion forms ''sthayi rasa dhatu''(permanent form) for carrying out physiological functions of nourishment and maintenance of body.
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Rasa dhatu is formed from essence of food(ahara rasa). The ingested food is disintegrated into two parts: essence or useful part (prasada) and waste (kitta). The prasada is called as essence of food (ahara rasa). This essence is transformed into a nutrient fluid called ‘rasa dhatu’. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 28/4]. It is the ultrafine form of ahara rasa. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3]
  
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The second portion called ‘''poshaka rasa’'' is carried forward to nourish the next [[''dhatu'']] i.e.[[ ''rakta'']]. [Cha.Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 15/16]
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The rasa dhatu is further acted upon by rasa dhatvagni. It is divided into two portions. The first portion forms permanent form (sthayi rasa dhatu) for carrying out physiological functions of nourishment and maintenance of the body.
  
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During the metabolic process, this rasa is transformed into [[''rakta dhatu'']] by action of ''ranjaka [[pitta]]''. It acquires a red colour during this process. This metabolism takes place at ''yakrit'' (liver) and ''pliha''(spleen). [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/4]
+
The second portion called ‘poshaka rasa’ is carried forward to nourish the next [[dhatu]] i.e.[[rakta]]. [Cha.Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 15/16]  
  
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'''Upadhatu and mala''' (metabolic byproducts and waste products):
+
During the metabolic process, this rasa is transformed into [[rakta dhatu]] by action of ranjaka [[pitta]]. It acquires a red colour during this process. This metabolism takes place at yakrit (liver) and pliha(spleen). [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/4] 
  
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''Stanya'' (breast milk) and ''artava''(menstrual blood including ovum) are formed as ''upadhatu'' (metabolic byproducts) of ''rasa dhatu.''[Cha. Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 15/17]. Sharangadhara considers only ''stanya''(breast milk)  formed as upadhatu. [Sharangadhara Sam. Purvakhanda chapter 5].
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===Metabolic byproducts and waste products(Upadhatu and mala)===
 +
 
 +
Breast milk(Stanya) and menstrual blood including ovum (artava) are formed as metabolic byproducts(upadhatu) of rasa dhatu.[Cha. Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 15/17]. Sharangadhara considers only breast milk(stanya)  formed as upadhatu. [Sha. Sa. Purvakhanda chapter 5].
  
 
Various secretions and discharges are formed in this process as ‘''[[kapha]]''’. This is termed as ''"malarupakapha"''.  
 
Various secretions and discharges are formed in this process as ‘''[[kapha]]''’. This is termed as ''"malarupakapha"''.  
  
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'''Quantity of ''rasa dhatu'' in body''':
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===Quantity of rasa dhatu in body ===
  
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The total quantity of rasa is nine ''anjali''. One ''anjali'' is equal to the quantity that can be filled in a space formed from joining one’s palms together. This measurement is person-specific. [Cha. Sam. [[Sharira Sthana]] 8/15]
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The total quantity of rasa is nine anjali. One anjali is equal to the quantity that can be filled in a space formed from joining one’s palms together. This measurement is person-specific.[Cha. Sam. [[Sharira Sthana]] 7/15]
  
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'''Time span:'''
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===Time span===
  
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The ''rasa dhatu'' is formed in a time span of 3015 ''kala'' (five days). [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/14].
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The rasa dhatu is formed in a time span of 3015 kala (five days). [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/14].
  
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===Circulation of rasa dhatu===
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==Circulation of rasa dhatu==
  
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The ''rasa dhatu'' is circulated through twenty-four ''dhamani'' (vessels) originating in the cardiac region. The upper and lower part of body is nourished by ten vessels each. The remaining four nourish lateral parts of body. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3] All the twenty-four vessels are described in a separate chapter named ''‘dhamanivyakarana sharira.''[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 9] ''Vyana vayu'' carries out the circulation of ''rasa dhatu''. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 15/36]  
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The rasa dhatu is circulated through twenty-four vessels(dhamani) originating in the cardiac region. The upper and lower part of the body is nourished by ten vessels each. The remaining four nourish lateral parts of the body. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3] All the twenty-four vessels are described in a separate chapter named ‘dhamanivyakarana sharira'[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 9] Vyana[[vayu]] carries out the circulation of rasa dhatu. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 15/36]  
  
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'''''Rasavahi/ Rasaharini:'''''
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===Rasavahi/ Rasaharini===
  
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Heart of the fetus is linked to the mother’s heart through the ''rasavahi'' (the channels carrying nutrients.) The fetus expresses its wishes to the mother through these channels. [Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 3/15].
+
The heart of the fetus is linked to the mother’s heart through the channels carrying nutrients(rasavahi). The fetus expresses its wishes to the mother through these channels. [Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 3/15].
  
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During the eighth month of gestation, the ''ojas''(vital essence) is unstable. It moves from mother to fetus and from fetus to mother through these channels.[Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 3/24].
+
During the eighth month of gestation, the vital essence(ojas) is unstable. It moves from mother to fetus and from fetus to mother through these channels.[Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 3/24].
  
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'''''Rasavaha srotas:'''''
+
===Rasavaha srotas ===
  
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Rasavaha srotas is the transport system of circulating rasa all over the body. It originates from the heart and circulates rasa through ten vessels. [Cha. Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 5/8] The same organs and channels form pranavaha srotas. [Su. Sa. Sharira Sthana 9/12]. This means the heart and channels transporting rasa also carry prana (vital force) in the body.  
+
Rasavaha srotas is the transport system of circulating rasa all over the body. It originates from the heart and circulates rasa through ten vessels. [Cha. Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 5/8] The same organs and channels form pranavaha srotas. [Su. Sa. Sharira Sthana 9/12]. This means the heart and channels transporting rasa also carry vital force (prana) in the body.  
  
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'''Role of ''rasa dhatu'' in embryogenesis:'''
+
===Role of rasa dhatu in embryogenesis:===
  
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During embryonic life, ''rasa dhatu'' is the only source of nutrition. The heart of the fetus is connected with the mother through the placenta and umbilical cord. The fetus gets ''rasa dhatu'' (nutrient fluid) through this placental circulation. Growth and development depend upon nutrition provided by ''rasa dhatu''. This promotes strength and complexion of the fetus as it is composed of materials having all six tastes. This ''rasa'' also nourishes the mother’s body and carries out lactation.[Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 6/23]
+
During embryonic life, rasa dhatu is the only source of nutrition. The heart of the fetus is connected with the mother through the placenta and umbilical cord. The fetus gets nutrient fluid (rasa dhatu) through this placental circulation. Growth and development depend upon nutrition provided by rasa dhatu. This promotes strength and complexion of the fetus as it is composed of materials having all six tastes. This rasa also nourishes the mother’s body and carries out lactation.[Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 6/23]
  
 
Rasa is also one among six sources of origin of fetus along with maternal and paternal factors. During embryogenesis, it is responsible for the formation and growth of body parts, sustenance of life, satiety, nourishment and enthusiasm. [Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 3/12]
 
Rasa is also one among six sources of origin of fetus along with maternal and paternal factors. During embryogenesis, it is responsible for the formation and growth of body parts, sustenance of life, satiety, nourishment and enthusiasm. [Cha. Sa. [[Sharira Sthana]] 3/12]
  
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'''Functions of ''rasa dhatu'':'''
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==Functions of rasa dhatu :==
  
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The functions attributed to ''rasa dhatu'' are:
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The functions attributed to rasa dhatu are:
  
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• ''Tarpana'': nourishment of body at any age.  
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*Tarpana: nourishment of body at any age.  
  
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• ''Vardhana'': growth and development (especially in kids)
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*Vardhana: growth and development (especially in kids)
  
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• ''Dharana / jeevana'': stabilizing and maintaining the [[''dhatu'']] (during middle age)  
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*Dharana / jeevana: stabilizing and maintaining the [[dhatu]] (during middle age)  
  
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• ''Yapana'': preventing the total deterioration of [[''dhatu'']] (during old age)
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*Yapana: preventing the total deterioration of [[dhatu]] (during old age)
  
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Other functions like ''avashtambhana''(stabilizing the body components), ''snehana''(unction) are also carried by ''rasa dhatu''[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3]
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Other functions like stabilizing the body components(avashtambhana), unction(snehana) are also carried by rasa dhatu.[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3]
  
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It is responsible for ''tushti''(satiety), ''preenana''(nurturing body), ''raktapushti''(nourishing [[''rakta dhatu'']]).[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/5]
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It is responsible for satiety(tushti), nurturing body(preenana), nourishing [[rakta dhatu]](raktapushti).[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/5]
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 +
==Importance in diagnosis ==
  
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==Importance in diagnosis: ==
 
 
===Causes of vitiation===
 
===Causes of vitiation===
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Excess consumption of heavy to digest, cold, over-unctuous food, overeating and excessive mental stress cause vitiation of rasavaha srotas. [Cha. Sa. Vimana Sthana 5/13]
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Excess consumption of heavy to digest, cold, over-unctuous food, overeating and excessive mental stress cause vitiation of rasavaha srotas. [Cha. Sa. [[Vimana Sthana]] 5/13]
  
 
===Abnormal states===
 
===Abnormal states===
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{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
|-
 
|-
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! Symptoms of ''rasa kshaya''(decrease of rasa dhatu)* !!Symptoms of ''rasa vriddhi'' (increase in rasa dhatu)**   
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! Symptoms of decrease of rasa dhatu (rasa kshaya)* !!Symptoms of increase in rasa dhatu(rasa vriddhi)**   
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Dhatu apachaya/ksheenata''(degeneration/depletion of other [[''dhatu'']]) || ''Agnimandya''(diminished digestive power)
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|Degeneration/depletion of other [[''dhatu'']](Dhatu apachaya/ksheenata) || Diminished digestive power(Agnimandya)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Mukhashosha/rukshata''(dryness of mouth) || ''Utkleshana''(nausea)
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| Dryness of mouth(Mukhashosha/rukshata) || Nausea(Utkleshana)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Sharirashosha/rukshata''(dryness or depletion of body mass) || ''Praseka''(salivation)
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| Dryness or depletion of body mass (Sharirashosha/rukshata) ||Salivation (Praseka)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Karshya'' (emaciation) || ''Chchardi''(vomiting)
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| Emaciation (Karshya) || vomiting(Chchardi)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Trishna''(thirst) || ''Alasya''(lack of enthusiasm to do work)
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| Thirst(Trishna) || Lack of enthusiasm to do work (Alasya)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Shunyata''(feeling of emptiness) || ''Gaurava''(heaviness in body)
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| Feeling of emptiness(Shunyata) || Heaviness in body (Gaurava)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Shrama''(tiredness) || ''Shvaitya''(whitish discoloration of body)
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| Tiredness(Shrama) || Whitish discoloration of body(Shvaitya)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Shabdaasahishnuta'' (intolerance to sound) || ''Shaitya''(feeling of abnormal coldness of body)
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| Intolerance to sound(Shabdaasahishnuta) || Feeling of abnormal coldness of body(Shaitya)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Hrudayaghattana''(pain in the heart with a feeling that someone is holding and vigorously shaking the heart) || ''Angashaithilya''(looseness in body parts)
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| Pain in the heart with a feeling that someone is holding and vigorously shaking the heart(Hrudayaghattana) || Looseness in body parts(Angashaithilya)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Hrutkampa''(trembling sensation of heart or tachycardia) || ''Shwasa''(dyspnoea)
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| Trembling sensation of heart or tachycardia(Hrutkampa) || Dyspnoea(Shwasa)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Hrutdrava''(palpitation) || ''Kasa''(cough)
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| Palpitation(Hrutdrava) || Cough(Kasa)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Hrutshola''(cardiac pain) || ''Atinidrata''(excessive sleep)
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| Cardiac pain(Hrutshola) ||Excessive sleep (Atinidrata)
 
|-
 
|-
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| ''Shrama/klama'' (fatigue or tiredness even after doing a small work) || --
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| Fatigue or tiredness even after doing a small work (Shrama/klama) || --
 
|}
 
|}
 
 
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* ** [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/14], [A. Hr. Sutra Sthana 11/7-8]
 
* ** [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/14], [A. Hr. Sutra Sthana 11/7-8]
  
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'''Clinical features of vitiation of ''rasavaha srotas'':'''
+
===Clinical features of vitiation of rasavaha srotas===
 +
 
 +
If the transport channels of rasa dhatu are vitiated, then following clinical features are observed:
 +
 
 +
*Aversion towards food, anorexia, altered sense of taste, inability to identify tastes, nausea, heaviness in the body, drowsiness, body ache, fever, blackouts, anemia, obstruction of channels, impotence, tiredness (angavasada), emaciation, diminished [[agni]], and premature aging (wrinkling of skin and graying of hair [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 28/9-11]
 +
 
 +
*In addition to the above features, the following features are observed after injury to rasavaha srotas:  
 +
Emaciation(Shosha),crying due to pain(akroshana), bending(vinamana),confusion(mohana),vertigo(bhramana), trembling(vepana)and death. [Su. Sa. Sharira Sthana 9/12]
 +
 
 +
===Role of rasa dhatu as vitiated factor in disease===
 +
 
 +
Rasa dhatu is involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases like jwara [Cha. Sa. NidanaSthana 1/20], obstinate urinary diseases including diabetes(prameha) [Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 4/7] and emaciation including tuberculosis(shosha) [Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 5/8].
 +
 
 +
The extremes of body frames i.e. obesity(sthaulya) and emaciation(karshya) depend on the quantity and quality of rasa dhatu, its distribution, conversion, and utilization in the body. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/32] These two conditions are risk factors for a wide range of metabolic disorders and lifestyle disorders.
  
−
If the transport channels of ''rasa dhatu'' are vitiated, then following clinical features are observed:
+
==Importance of concept in the preservation of health and prevention ==
  
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• Aversion towards food, anorexia, altered sense of taste, inability to identify tastes, nausea, heaviness in the body, drowsiness, body ache, fever, blackouts, anemia, obstruction of channels, impotence, tiredness (''angavasada''), emaciation, diminished [[''agni'']], and premature aging (wrinkling of skin and graying of hair [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 28/9-11]
+
The existence of [[purusha]] depends upon rasa. Therefore, one should protect and maintain the quality and quantity of rasa dhatu with utmost care.[Su. Sam. Sutra Sthana 14/12] It can be achieved through proper diet and lifestyle.
  
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• In addition to the above features, the following features are observed after injury to ''rasavaha srotas'': ''Shosha''(emaciation),''akroshana''(crying due to pain), ''vinamana''(bending),''mohana''(confusion),''bhramana''(vertigo), ''vepana''(trembling)and death. [Su. Sa. Sharira Sthana 9/12]
+
Rejuvenating therapy ([[Rasayana]]) is a special branch of Ayurveda dealing with the promotion and preservation of health. It helps in maintaining the best qualities of rasa dhatu and other body components. The quality of rasa is directly responsible for the quality of other tissues, immunity, promoting health and longevity. [Dalhana, Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 27/1]
  
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'''Role of ''rasa dhatu'' as vitiated factor in disease:'''
+
==Management of diseases ==
  
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''Rasa dhatu'' is involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases like ''jwara'' [Cha. Sa. NidanaSthana 1/20], ''prameha''(obstinate urinary diseases including diabetes) [Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 4/7] and ''shosha''(emaciation including tuberculosis) [Cha. Sa. [[Nidana Sthana]] 5/8].
+
===Conditions including increase in rasa dhatu===
  
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The extremes of body frames i.e. ''sthaulya''(obesity) and ''karshya''(emaciation) depend on the quantity and quality of ''rasa dhatu'', its distribution, conversion, and utilization in the body [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/32]. These two conditions are risk factors for a wide range of metabolic disorders and lifestyle disorders.
+
Fasting and other reduction therapies(Langhana) is the principle of treatment for the disorders due to vitiation of rasa dhatu. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 28/25]  
  
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==Importance of concept in preservation of health and prevention: ==
+
It is also indicated in [[jwara]]. [Cha. Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 3/142]
−
The existence of [[''purusha'']] depends upon rasa. Therefore, one should protect and maintain the quality and quantity of ''rasa dhatu'' with utmost care.[Su. Sam. Sutra Sthana 14/12] It can be achieved through proper diet and lifestyle.
+
In the context of dhatugata jwara, for the management of rasadhatugata jwara, therapeutic emesis([[vamana]]) and fasting(upavasa) are mentioned as the treatment choices. [Cha. Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 3/315]
  
−
[[Rasayana]] (rejuvenating therapy) is a special branch of Ayurveda dealing with the promotion and preservation of health. It helps in maintaining the best qualities of ''rasa dhatu'' and other body components. The quality of rasa is directly responsible for the quality of other tissues, immunity, promoting health and longevity. [Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 27/1,Dalhana]
+
===Conditions including decrease in rasa dhatu===
  
−
==Management of diseases: ==
+
In the conditions like emaciation including tuberculosis (rajayakshma or shosha), nourishment therapy(tarpana) is indicated.  The treatment regimen includes a variety of meat soups and juices. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 8/149-172]
−
==Conditions including increase in ''rasa dhatu'':==
 
−
''Langhana'' (fasting and other reduction therapies) is the principle of treatment for the disorders due to vitiation of ''rasa dhatu''. [Cha. Sa. [[Sutra Sthana]] 28/25]  
 
  
−
It is also indicated in ''jwara''. [Cha. Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 3/142]
+
==Current researches==
−
In the context of ''dhatugata jwara'', for the management of ''rasadhatugata jwara'', ''vamana''(therapeutic emesis) and ''upavasa''(fasting) are mentioned as the treatment choices. [Cha. Sa. [[Chikitsa Sthana]] 3/315]
 
  
−
==Conditions including decrease in rasa dhatu:==
+
In view of modern physiology, the rasa dhatu includes plasma, interstitial fluids and lymph.<ref> Dwarkanath C. Introduction to Kayachikitsa. Chaukhambha Orientalia. Varanasi; 1996. Third edition.pg.318 </ref>The rasa dhatvagni is related to glucose metabolism, circulation in portal vein, the formation of white blood cells.<ref>Amardeep Kour, Gupta Vikas, Sodhi Danisha. Importance of Nyayas on Body’s Well-Being – A Conceptual Study. Int J Ayu Pharm Chem. 2015, 4 (1).pg.95-106 available from www.ijapc.com </ref> 
−
In the conditions like rajayakshma or shosha (emaciation including tuberculosis), tarpana (nourishment therapy) is indicated. The treatment regimen includes variety of meat soups and juices. [Cha.Sa.[[Chikitsa Sthana]] 8/149-172]
 
  
−
==Current researches: ==
+
In the opinion of some researchers, rasa dhatu has three major components solids, water and gases.  Solids are 7-8 % and contain organic substances like plasma proteins, carbohydrate, enzymes, nonprotein nitrogenous substances, amino acids, internal secretions like hormones and antibodies. Inorganic substances include sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, bicarbonate, chloride, phosphate, iodide, iron and copper. Water is 92-93 %. The gases include oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.<ref>Neha Rawat and Rakesh et al. Correlation of Rasa dhatu in Modern Perspective: A Review. Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm. 2019; 10(2):28-32 http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2277-4343.100231</ref>
 +
 +
As per the opinion of Singh G., the fluid flowing in blood vessels is a mixture of ahararasa, rasa, shonita etc. It is not one dhatu.From modern physiological point of view also, the liquid flowing in the blood vessels is a mixture of nutrients, plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, etc.<ref>Gurdip Singh, Revisit To Concept Of Dhatu Formation, Journal of Ayurveda Physicians and Surgeons.2015, 2 (2):pg47-51</ref>
  
−
In view of modern physiology, the rasa dhatu includes plasma, interstitial fluids and lymph.<ref> Dwarkanath C. Introduction to Kayachikitsa. Chaukhambha Orientalia. Varanasi; 1996. Third edition.pg.318 </ref>The rasa dhatvagni is related to glucose metabolism, circulation in portal vein, the formation of white blood cells.  In the opinion of some researchers, rasa dhatu has three major components solids, water and gases.  Solids are 7-8 % and contain organic substances like plasma proteins, carbohydrate, enzymes, nonprotein nitrogenous substances, amino acids, internal secretions like hormones and antibodies. Inorganic substances include sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, bicarbonate, chloride, phosphate, iodide, iron and copper. Water is 92-93 %. The gases include oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
+
Some researchers opine that the clinical conditions of an increase in rasa dhatu can be considered as acidosis or hypercalcaemia or chronic liver diseases. Whereas the conditions of decrease in rasa dhatu correlates with alkalosis or hypokalaemia or hypocalcaemia or hyponatremia or hypomagnesemia.<ref>Gupta A.  Byadgi  P. S. An Understanding of Rasa Dhatu as Described in Ayurveda in the Light of Modern Science. Int.J.Pharm.Phytopharmacol.Res. 2012, 2(1): 50-52</ref>
−
As per the opinion of Singh G., the fluid flowing in blood vessels is a mixture of ahararasa, rasa, shonita etc. It is not one dhatu.From modern physiological point of view also, the liquid flowing in the blood vessels is a mixture of nutrients, plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets etc.
 
−
Some researchers opine that the clinical conditions of an increase in rasa dhatu can be considered as acidosis or hypercalcaemia or chronic liver diseases. Whereas the conditions of decrease in rasa dhatu correlates with alkalosis or hypokalaemia or hypocalcaemia or hyponatremia or hypomagnesemia.  
 
  
 
===List of theses done===
 
===List of theses done===
Line 169: Line 218:
 
1.Vaidya M.D.(1963): Rasavaha Srotasa Pareeksha, Dept of Kayachikitsa, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.
 
1.Vaidya M.D.(1963): Rasavaha Srotasa Pareeksha, Dept of Kayachikitsa, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.
  
−
2.Mishra R. K. (1967): Physio-pathological approach on the concept of Rasa- KshayaandRasa- Vriddhi. Dept of Kayachikitsa, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.
+
2.Mishra R. K. (1967): Physio-pathological approach on the concept of Rasa- Kshaya and Rasa- Vriddhi. Dept of Kayachikitsa, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.
  
 
3.Pandey H. N. (1987): Rasavaha Sroto-Dushti Ka Naidanika Adhyayana Hrid- Rogon Ke Pariprekshya Mein. Dept of Kayachikitsa, NIA Jaipur.
 
3.Pandey H. N. (1987): Rasavaha Sroto-Dushti Ka Naidanika Adhyayana Hrid- Rogon Ke Pariprekshya Mein. Dept of Kayachikitsa, NIA Jaipur.
Line 185: Line 234:
 
==More information ==
 
==More information ==
  
−
[[VividhashitapitiyaAdhyaya]]  
+
[[Vividhashitapitiya Adhyaya]]  
 +
 
 +
[[Grahani Chikitsa]]
 +
 
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[[Jwara Nidana]]
 +
 
 +
=== Related articles ===
 +
 
 +
*[[Dhatu]]
 +
 
 +
*[[Rakta dhatu]]
 +
 
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*[[Mamsa dhatu]]
 +
 
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*[[Meda dhatu]]
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*[[Asthi dhatu]]
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*[[Majja dhatu]]
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*[[Shukra dhatu]]
 +
 
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=== Abbreviations ===
 +
 
 +
*SAT = Standard Ayurveda Terminology
 +
*Cha. = Charak
 +
*Su. = Sushruta
 +
*Ka. = Kashyapa
 +
*Sha. =Sharangadhara
 +
*Sa. = Samhita
 +
*A.  = Ashtanga
 +
*Hr.  = Hridaya
 +
*S.  = Sangraha
 +
 
 +
=== References from [[Charak Samhita]] ===
 +
 
 +
The list of references for rasa dhatu in Charak Samhita can be seen [[Media:Rasa dhatu References- Charak Samhita.pdf|here.]]
 +
 
 +
<big>'''[[Special:ContactMe|Send us your suggestions and feedback on this page.]]'''</big>
  
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==References==
  
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[[JwaraNidana]]
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Latest revision as of 19:24, 23 February 2024

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The word rasa dhatu literally means the component of the body with nutrients and essence. There are two forms of rasa related to body physiology. Ahara rasa is the essence of food after the first level of digestion by factors responsible for digestion and metabolism (jatharagni) in the stomach. The second form is rasa dhatu. It is the component formed after the ahara rasa gets acted upon by rasa dhatvagni.

Contributors
Section/Chapter/topic Sharira / Dhatu / Rasa Dhatu
Authors Deole Y.S., Anagha S.
Reviewer and editor Basisht G.
Affiliation Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre, I.P.G.T.& R.A., Jamnagar
Correspondence email: carakasamhita@gmail.com
Publisher Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre, I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, India
Date of publication: April 16, 2020
DOI 10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s09.013

Etymology and derivation

The word ‘rasa’ is derived from the Sanskrit root “ras” having the meaning of taste, to relish, to perceive, to feel, to desire.[1]

Rasa is derived from the root ‘gatau’ which means moving. As the nutrient fluid is continuously circulated in our body, it is known as rasa.[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/13]

Synonyms

• Adyadhatu(first dhatu) [A.Hr.Sutra Sthana 13/25]

• Aharaparinama dhatu(transformed from food) [Cha. Sa. Nidana Sthana 1/23]

• Prasada and Sara are the synonyms of rasa in the context of ahara rasa.

Meanings in different contexts

The word rasa has a wide range of meanings like taste, extract/juice, meat soup, mercury.

In the context of body components, the terms like ahara rasa, rasa dhatu and sharirarasa/garbharasa are described.

The word ‘garbharasa’ is applied to denote essence or vitality (ojas) in embryonic life. This is transformed into unctuous body fluids. [Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 30/10]. It is known as ‘sharira rasa’ in later life leading to the formation of ojas. [Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 30/11].

Panchabhautika constitution and properties

The rasa dhatu has jala mahabhuta predominance in its constitution. It possesses liquidity(drava), fluidity (sara), opaque(manda), viscous(snigdha) and unctuous(pichchila) properties.[2]

Physiological aspects

Formation,circulation and metabolism of rasa dhatu

Rasa dhatu is formed from essence of food(ahara rasa). The ingested food is disintegrated into two parts: essence or useful part (prasada) and waste (kitta). The prasada is called as essence of food (ahara rasa). This essence is transformed into a nutrient fluid called ‘rasa dhatu’. [Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 28/4]. It is the ultrafine form of ahara rasa. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3]

The rasa dhatu is further acted upon by rasa dhatvagni. It is divided into two portions. The first portion forms permanent form (sthayi rasa dhatu) for carrying out physiological functions of nourishment and maintenance of the body.

The second portion called ‘poshaka rasa’ is carried forward to nourish the next dhatu i.e.rakta. [Cha.Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 15/16]

During the metabolic process, this rasa is transformed into rakta dhatu by action of ranjaka pitta. It acquires a red colour during this process. This metabolism takes place at yakrit (liver) and pliha(spleen). [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/4]

Metabolic byproducts and waste products(Upadhatu and mala)

Breast milk(Stanya) and menstrual blood including ovum (artava) are formed as metabolic byproducts(upadhatu) of rasa dhatu.[Cha. Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/17]. Sharangadhara considers only breast milk(stanya) formed as upadhatu. [Sha. Sa. Purvakhanda chapter 5].

Various secretions and discharges are formed in this process as ‘kapha’. This is termed as "malarupakapha".

Quantity of rasa dhatu in body

The total quantity of rasa is nine anjali. One anjali is equal to the quantity that can be filled in a space formed from joining one’s palms together. This measurement is person-specific.[Cha. Sam. Sharira Sthana 7/15]

Time span

The rasa dhatu is formed in a time span of 3015 kala (five days). [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/14].

Circulation of rasa dhatu

The rasa dhatu is circulated through twenty-four vessels(dhamani) originating in the cardiac region. The upper and lower part of the body is nourished by ten vessels each. The remaining four nourish lateral parts of the body. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3] All the twenty-four vessels are described in a separate chapter named ‘dhamanivyakarana sharira'[Su.Sa.Sharira Sthana 9] Vyanavayu carries out the circulation of rasa dhatu. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/36]

Rasavahi/ Rasaharini

The heart of the fetus is linked to the mother’s heart through the channels carrying nutrients(rasavahi). The fetus expresses its wishes to the mother through these channels. [Cha. Sa. Sharira Sthana 3/15].

During the eighth month of gestation, the vital essence(ojas) is unstable. It moves from mother to fetus and from fetus to mother through these channels.[Cha. Sa. Sharira Sthana 3/24].

Rasavaha srotas

Rasavaha srotas is the transport system of circulating rasa all over the body. It originates from the heart and circulates rasa through ten vessels. [Cha. Sa. Vimana Sthana 5/8] The same organs and channels form pranavaha srotas. [Su. Sa. Sharira Sthana 9/12]. This means the heart and channels transporting rasa also carry vital force (prana) in the body.

Role of rasa dhatu in embryogenesis:

During embryonic life, rasa dhatu is the only source of nutrition. The heart of the fetus is connected with the mother through the placenta and umbilical cord. The fetus gets nutrient fluid (rasa dhatu) through this placental circulation. Growth and development depend upon nutrition provided by rasa dhatu. This promotes strength and complexion of the fetus as it is composed of materials having all six tastes. This rasa also nourishes the mother’s body and carries out lactation.[Cha. Sa. Sharira Sthana 6/23]

Rasa is also one among six sources of origin of fetus along with maternal and paternal factors. During embryogenesis, it is responsible for the formation and growth of body parts, sustenance of life, satiety, nourishment and enthusiasm. [Cha. Sa. Sharira Sthana 3/12]

Functions of rasa dhatu :

The functions attributed to rasa dhatu are:

  • Tarpana: nourishment of body at any age.
  • Vardhana: growth and development (especially in kids)
  • Dharana / jeevana: stabilizing and maintaining the dhatu (during middle age)
  • Yapana: preventing the total deterioration of dhatu (during old age)

Other functions like stabilizing the body components(avashtambhana), unction(snehana) are also carried by rasa dhatu.[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 14/3]

It is responsible for satiety(tushti), nurturing body(preenana), nourishing rakta dhatu(raktapushti).[Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/5]

Importance in diagnosis

Causes of vitiation

Excess consumption of heavy to digest, cold, over-unctuous food, overeating and excessive mental stress cause vitiation of rasavaha srotas. [Cha. Sa. Vimana Sthana 5/13]

Abnormal states

The increase or decrease in quality and/or quantity of rasa dhatu can lead to various abnormal conditions. The states can be assessed by following clinical features.

Symptoms of decrease of rasa dhatu (rasa kshaya)* Symptoms of increase in rasa dhatu(rasa vriddhi)**
Degeneration/depletion of other ''dhatu''(Dhatu apachaya/ksheenata) Diminished digestive power(Agnimandya)
Dryness of mouth(Mukhashosha/rukshata) Nausea(Utkleshana)
Dryness or depletion of body mass (Sharirashosha/rukshata) Salivation (Praseka)
Emaciation (Karshya) vomiting(Chchardi)
Thirst(Trishna) Lack of enthusiasm to do work (Alasya)
Feeling of emptiness(Shunyata) Heaviness in body (Gaurava)
Tiredness(Shrama) Whitish discoloration of body(Shvaitya)
Intolerance to sound(Shabdaasahishnuta) Feeling of abnormal coldness of body(Shaitya)
Pain in the heart with a feeling that someone is holding and vigorously shaking the heart(Hrudayaghattana) Looseness in body parts(Angashaithilya)
Trembling sensation of heart or tachycardia(Hrutkampa) Dyspnoea(Shwasa)
Palpitation(Hrutdrava) Cough(Kasa)
Cardiac pain(Hrutshola) Excessive sleep (Atinidrata)
Fatigue or tiredness even after doing a small work (Shrama/klama) --
  • *[Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 27/764], [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/9], [A. Hr. Sutra Sthana 11/17]
  • ** [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/14], [A. Hr. Sutra Sthana 11/7-8]

Clinical features of vitiation of rasavaha srotas

If the transport channels of rasa dhatu are vitiated, then following clinical features are observed:

  • Aversion towards food, anorexia, altered sense of taste, inability to identify tastes, nausea, heaviness in the body, drowsiness, body ache, fever, blackouts, anemia, obstruction of channels, impotence, tiredness (angavasada), emaciation, diminished agni, and premature aging (wrinkling of skin and graying of hair [Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 28/9-11]
  • In addition to the above features, the following features are observed after injury to rasavaha srotas:

Emaciation(Shosha),crying due to pain(akroshana), bending(vinamana),confusion(mohana),vertigo(bhramana), trembling(vepana)and death. [Su. Sa. Sharira Sthana 9/12]

Role of rasa dhatu as vitiated factor in disease

Rasa dhatu is involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases like jwara [Cha. Sa. NidanaSthana 1/20], obstinate urinary diseases including diabetes(prameha) [Cha. Sa. Nidana Sthana 4/7] and emaciation including tuberculosis(shosha) [Cha. Sa. Nidana Sthana 5/8].

The extremes of body frames i.e. obesity(sthaulya) and emaciation(karshya) depend on the quantity and quality of rasa dhatu, its distribution, conversion, and utilization in the body. [Su. Sa. Sutra Sthana 15/32] These two conditions are risk factors for a wide range of metabolic disorders and lifestyle disorders.

Importance of concept in the preservation of health and prevention

The existence of purusha depends upon rasa. Therefore, one should protect and maintain the quality and quantity of rasa dhatu with utmost care.[Su. Sam. Sutra Sthana 14/12] It can be achieved through proper diet and lifestyle.

Rejuvenating therapy (Rasayana) is a special branch of Ayurveda dealing with the promotion and preservation of health. It helps in maintaining the best qualities of rasa dhatu and other body components. The quality of rasa is directly responsible for the quality of other tissues, immunity, promoting health and longevity. [Dalhana, Su. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 27/1]

Management of diseases

Conditions including increase in rasa dhatu

Fasting and other reduction therapies(Langhana) is the principle of treatment for the disorders due to vitiation of rasa dhatu. [Cha. Sa. Sutra Sthana 28/25]

It is also indicated in jwara. [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 3/142] In the context of dhatugata jwara, for the management of rasadhatugata jwara, therapeutic emesis(vamana) and fasting(upavasa) are mentioned as the treatment choices. [Cha. Sa. Chikitsa Sthana 3/315]

Conditions including decrease in rasa dhatu

In the conditions like emaciation including tuberculosis (rajayakshma or shosha), nourishment therapy(tarpana) is indicated. The treatment regimen includes a variety of meat soups and juices. [Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 8/149-172]

Current researches

In view of modern physiology, the rasa dhatu includes plasma, interstitial fluids and lymph.[3]The rasa dhatvagni is related to glucose metabolism, circulation in portal vein, the formation of white blood cells.[4]

In the opinion of some researchers, rasa dhatu has three major components solids, water and gases. Solids are 7-8 % and contain organic substances like plasma proteins, carbohydrate, enzymes, nonprotein nitrogenous substances, amino acids, internal secretions like hormones and antibodies. Inorganic substances include sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, bicarbonate, chloride, phosphate, iodide, iron and copper. Water is 92-93 %. The gases include oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.[5]

As per the opinion of Singh G., the fluid flowing in blood vessels is a mixture of ahararasa, rasa, shonita etc. It is not one dhatu.From modern physiological point of view also, the liquid flowing in the blood vessels is a mixture of nutrients, plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, etc.[6]

Some researchers opine that the clinical conditions of an increase in rasa dhatu can be considered as acidosis or hypercalcaemia or chronic liver diseases. Whereas the conditions of decrease in rasa dhatu correlates with alkalosis or hypokalaemia or hypocalcaemia or hyponatremia or hypomagnesemia.[7]

List of theses done

1.Vaidya M.D.(1963): Rasavaha Srotasa Pareeksha, Dept of Kayachikitsa, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.

2.Mishra R. K. (1967): Physio-pathological approach on the concept of Rasa- Kshaya and Rasa- Vriddhi. Dept of Kayachikitsa, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.

3.Pandey H. N. (1987): Rasavaha Sroto-Dushti Ka Naidanika Adhyayana Hrid- Rogon Ke Pariprekshya Mein. Dept of Kayachikitsa, NIA Jaipur.

4.Kulkarni S.(1994): A study on the concept of Stroto-Dushti w.s.r. to Rasavaha Srotasa, Dept of Basic Principles, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.

5. Kumara J. M. W.S.(1996): A comprehensive study of Rasavaha Srotasa w.s.r. to Shotha, Dept of Basic Principles, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.

6.Rakesh M. Changani(2018): Fundamental And Applied Study of Rasapradoshaja Vikara And Its Principle of Management w.s.r. to Aruchi, Dept of Basic Principles, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.

7. Bharat L. Bhadiyadra(2018): A study on Rasavaha Sroto Dushti in context to Karshya.(Ph.D.), Dept of Basic Principles, IPGT &RA, Jamnagar.

8. Priya Gupta(2019): A study on Hetuskandha in context to Rasavaha Srotas through the Experimental & Survey Study, Dept of Basic Principles, IPGT & RA, Jamnagar.

More information

Vividhashitapitiya Adhyaya

Grahani Chikitsa

Jwara Nidana

Related articles

Abbreviations

  • SAT = Standard Ayurveda Terminology
  • Cha. = Charak
  • Su. = Sushruta
  • Ka. = Kashyapa
  • Sha. =Sharangadhara
  • Sa. = Samhita
  • A. = Ashtanga
  • Hr. = Hridaya
  • S. = Sangraha

References from Charak Samhita

The list of references for rasa dhatu in Charak Samhita can be seen here.

Send us your suggestions and feedback on this page.

References

  1. ↑ Monier Williams (1899), “रस्”, in A Sanskrit–English Dictionary, new edition, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, OCLC 458052227, page 0869
  2. ↑ Dwarkanath C. Introduction to Kayachikitsa. Chaukhambha Orientalia. Varanasi; 1996. Third edition.pg.320
  3. ↑ Dwarkanath C. Introduction to Kayachikitsa. Chaukhambha Orientalia. Varanasi; 1996. Third edition.pg.318
  4. ↑ Amardeep Kour, Gupta Vikas, Sodhi Danisha. Importance of Nyayas on Body’s Well-Being – A Conceptual Study. Int J Ayu Pharm Chem. 2015, 4 (1).pg.95-106 available from www.ijapc.com
  5. ↑ Neha Rawat and Rakesh et al. Correlation of Rasa dhatu in Modern Perspective: A Review. Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm. 2019; 10(2):28-32 http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2277-4343.100231
  6. ↑ Gurdip Singh, Revisit To Concept Of Dhatu Formation, Journal of Ayurveda Physicians and Surgeons.2015, 2 (2):pg47-51
  7. ↑ Gupta A. Byadgi P. S. An Understanding of Rasa Dhatu as Described in Ayurveda in the Light of Modern Science. Int.J.Pharm.Phytopharmacol.Res. 2012, 2(1): 50-52
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