Difference between revisions of "Ojas"

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Essence of body tissues.
 
Essence of body tissues.
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==Ojas==
 
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===Introduction===
 
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<div style = "text-align:justify;"> [[Ojas]](Sanskrit[[Sanskrit language]]{{उब्ज् + असुन ब् लोपः गुणश्च = ओजस}}) is the essential part formed collectively after every metabolism occurring at each tissue level inside the human body. It is the essence and nectar part of body derived from tissue metabolism and is responsible mainly for the strength, vigor and vitality of a human being. Many of the ancient scholars from [[[[Ayurveda]]]] have recognized [[Ojas]] as the active and potent principle of body manifesting the overall strength of an individual. In other words, the [[Ojas]] and Strength (''Bala'') are associated as a cause and effect relationship, where the [[Ojas]] stands to be the cause and the ''Bala'' is the ultimate effect of the same.<ref>http://ijapc.com/volume5-first-issue/V5-I1-7-P-53-64.pdf</ref> Even though the concept ''Ojas'' in [[Ayurveda]] is explored with specific properties, appearance, quantity; then too the exact physical component to which can be termed as ''Ojas'' is still cornered since ancient vedic period. Many of the ''Ayurvedic'' compendia have mentioned classical description about this ''Ojas''.       
 
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===Synonyms===
 
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''Bala'' (Strength); ''Sneha'' (Unctuous part); ''Prasad'' (Pure form); ''Sara'' (Supreme, excellent state); ''Rasa'' (Lymphatics); ''Mahat'' (Prime); ''Dhari'' (Which sustains the integrity of life); ''Sarva dhatu sneha'' (Collective nectar of all Dhatu-Tissues); ''Paramteja'' (Active principle); ''Jivashonita'' (Vital principle); ''Shukra'' (Reproductive tissue); ''Shukra sara'' (Excellent part of Reproductive tissue); ''Shukra Mala'' (Output of metabolism at Reproductive tissue)
 
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===Definition===
 
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Stalwarts from [[Ayurveda]] have defined ''Ojas'' in different ways. Few of them are mentioned below -
 
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# तत्र रसादिनां शुक्रान्तानां परम् धातुनां यत् परं तेजः । सु.सू.१५/१९  ''[[Dalhana]]'' the commentator of ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'', has opined that as the ''Ghee''(Clarified Butter) is assimilated within the milk itself, similarly the component ''Ojas'' is assimilated within the unctuous part of seven ''Dhatus'' (Tissues) present throughout the body. That is why the ''Ojas'' is also said to be the purest, finest and excellent part just as nectar derived collectively from the seven ''Dhatus''.   
 
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# केचित्त्तु शुक्र विशेषमोजः प्राहुः, तच्च न मनः प्रीणाति। शुक्रस्य सारम् ओजः। अत्यन्त शुध्दतया अस्य मलाभावः।। अ.सं.शा.६  ''Ojas'' is the supreme, excellent part of ''Shukra Dhatu'' (Reproductive tissue). It is responsible for feeding desires, emotions at psychological level. At the same time, it is also stated hereby that it is in its purest form which is completely devoid of any adulteration or impurities.   
 
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# प्राणायतनमुत्तमम्। सु.सू.१५    A very important component present inside the body which holds the ''Prana'' - Vitality or Life.   
 
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# ''Ojas'' is referred directly as the normal [[Kapha]] [[dosha]] which ultimately is responsible for the strength, vigor where its deviated or vitiated form represents as ''Mala''- biological wastes.
 
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===Formation===
 
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Scholars from [[Ayurveda]] have expressed different opinions about the formation of Ojas. Different views of different scholars are highlighted here -
 
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# A pure form of Ojas termed Sara<ref>Tripathi  Bramhanand,  Charak Samhita  with  Hindi  Commentary,  Sutra Sthana  30,  Choukhamba  Surbharti Prakashan Varanasi, reprint 2004</ref> is present from the intra-uterine period in the fetal stage within Shukra ([[Sperm]])and Artava ([[Egg cell]]).
 
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# The ''Ojas'' is also said to be present after the union of Shukra and Artava in the form of ''Garbha sara'' in ''Kalala''([[Morula]]) stage. The ''Ojas'' thus is present before actual birth of an individual is carried throughout the [[Gestation]] period. Due to instability of ''Ojas'' during 8th month of gestation, which is more prone towards [[Preterm birth]].
 
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# After birth the ''Ojas'' is always formed at each ''Dhatu'' level in very pure form as Sara by the virtue of metabolism occurring at that level. Hence it is stated that, ''Ojas'' is the essence part of every ''Dhatu'' and is collective ''Sara'' viz. [[Nectar]] of all the ''Dhatu'' from ''Rasa'' to ''Shukra''. Hereafter the ''Ojas'' then continuously persist throughout the lifetime.
 
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# The ''Ojas'' is also said to be formed by filtration from the ''Shukra Dhatu'' achieving its pure and excellent state of ''Sara''. Thus ''Ojas'' is also named as - ''Sara'' part of ''Shukra Dhatu.''
 
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===Types & Quantity===
 
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There are two types of ''Oja'' as mentioned in ''Ayurvedic'' contexts - ''Para'' and ''Apara''
 
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# ''Para Ojas'' - It is the main principle type out of the two. It is said to be originated at the very first time in the intra-uterine life of an individual. It remains constant and is not so easily deviated from its normalcy. Quantitatively the ''Para Ojas'' is of 8 drops (bindu). The Para Ojas is situated in [[Heart]] and performs the allocated functions so as to sustain the integrity of life.
 
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# ''Apara Ojas'' - It is secondary to the former one ''Para Ojas''. It is originated due to the metabolism occurring at each tissue (''Dhatu'') level. It is collectively developed at each ''Dhatu'' level from ''Rasa'' to ''Shukra dhatu'' and thus attaining the quality of ''Dhatu Sara''. At any pathological or abnormal stage this ''Apara Ojas'' gets easily affected thus hampering the immunity of that individual.
 
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===Physical and Chemical Properties of Ojas===
 
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The ''Para Ojas'' while residing in Heart is pure white whereas the ''Apara Ojas'' is located throughout the body having some slightly red and yellowish tinge in it.
 
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'''Table 1:Properties of Ojas'''
 
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Table showing the different properties of ''Ojas'' as per different Ayurvedic contexts classified as per the objects of perceptions.
 
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{| class="wikitable"
 
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!Guna'''!! Charak Samhita'''<ref>Tripathi  Bramhanand,  Charak Samhita  with  Hindi  Commentary,  Sutra Sthana  24/31,  Choukhamba  Surbharti Prakashan Varanasi, reprint 2004.</ref> !! ''Sushrut Samhita''<ref>Vaidya  Yadavji  Trikamji  Acharya, Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta, Sutra Sthana 15/26,  Choukhamba  Orientalia,  Varanasi, 2007.</ref>!!''Ashtang Hridaya''<ref>Gupta  Kaviraj  Atrideva,  Ashtanga Hridayam  with  Hindi  Commentary,  Sutra Sthana 11, Choukhamba Prakashan, reprint, 2007.</ref>
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Sparsha (Touch)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Shita (Cold), Snigdha (Unctuous), Mrudu (Soft), Shlakshna (Smooth), Mrutsna (Slimy), Picchila (Sticky) 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Shita (Cold), Snigdha (Unctuous), Mrudu (Soft), Mrutsna (Slimy)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Snigdha (Unctuous)
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Rupa (Visibility)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Shudha Shukla (Pure white), Ishat Rakta-pita (Slight red yellowish), Sarpi varna (Looks like Ghee-clarified butter)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Shukla (White)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Shudha (Pure white), Ishat Lohita-pitakam (Slight blood or yellow colored)
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Rasa ([[Taste]])
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Madhur (Sweet), Madhu rasa (like [[Honey]])
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Gandha (Smell)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Laja gandha (Parched cereal)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Others
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Guru (Heavy), Prasanna (Cherishable), Bahal (Bulky), Sthira (Stable)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Somatmaka (Cool), Pranayatana Uttamam (Superior among all dwelling sites of Prana-Vitality), Sthira (Stable), Sara (Movable in nature), Vivikta<ref>Chandrakant bhattacharya (editor),commentary of Haranchandra, sushruta samhita, New Delhi; reprint 2008</ref> (Clear or Distinctive)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Somatmaka (Cool)
 
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|-
 
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|}
 
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===Nutrition of Ojas===
 
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पुष्यन्ति त्वाहाररसाद्रसरूधिरमांसमेदोऽस्थिमज्जशुक्रौजांसि । च.सु.२८/४<ref>Tripathi Bramhanand, Charak Samhita with Hindi Commentary, Sutra Sthana 28/4, Choukhamba Surbharti Prakashan Varanasi, reprint 2004.</ref>
 
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The food once ingested is acted upon by the ''Jatharagni'' and is converted to ''Ahara rasa'' (partially digested food). The pure form of ''Ahara rasa'' is then brought into circulation which is then after called as - ''Rasa dhatu''. This ''Rasa dhatu'' contains all the essential nutrients necessary for optimum growth and development of the body. The same ''Rasa dhatu'' provides nutrition to the next coming all ''dhatu'' in the chain and simultaneously provides nutrition ''Ojas'' which is the pure form and excellent part coming out after tissue metabolism occuring at each ''dhatu'' level.
 
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===Location===
 
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''Ojas'' basically resides throughout the body as stated above in the ''Apara Oja'' and also in Heart as ''Para Oja''.
 
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Besides this one of the ancient scholar ''Bhela'' has mentioned the location of ''Oja'' in total twelve sites throughout the body. This are - ''Rasa'' (Lymphatics), ''Rakta'' ([[Blood]] with formed elements), ''Mamsa'' ([[Muscle tissue]]), ''Meda'' ([[Adipose tissue]]), ''Asthi'' ([[Osseous tissue]]), ''Majja'' ([[Bone marrow]]), ''Shukra'' (Reproductive tissue), ''Sveda'' (Sweat), ''Pitta'' (Chemical secretions involved in biotransformations), ''Shleshma'' (Mucoid secretions), ''Mutra'' ([[Urine]]) and ''Purish'' ([[Feces]]).<ref>Krishnadutta  swami,  Bhela Samhita,  Sutra  Sthana  12,  Chaukhamba Prakashan, 1957</ref>
 
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===Functions===
 
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तत्र बलेन स्थिरोपचितमांसता सर्वचेष्टास्वप्रतिघातः स्वरवर्णप्रसादो बाह्यानामाभ्यन्तराणाञ्च करणानामात्मकार्यप्रतिपत्तिर्भवति । सु.सू १५/२०<ref>Jadavaji trikamji acharya (editor), Sushruta samhita, Varanasi; chaukhambha orientalia, 8th edition, 2005</ref>
 
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# The prime and most important function of ''Ojas'' is to keep the body alive by sustaining integrity of life. Any deviation or depreciation in normal quantity of ''Ojas'' may also prove fatal. 
 
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# It is also responsible for providing nutrition and enhancing the immune strength of the body. 
 
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# It is also responsible for the providing immunity which also helps to retard the ageing process.
 
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# It also helps to bring stability in ''Mamsa dhatu'' ([[Muscle tissue]]) along with proper growth of it to manifest significant strength and stamina by the body. 
 
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# All the actions carried out by the body at every level without any hindrance are undoubtedly supported by adequate and normal ''Ojas'' component of the body. 
 
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# Ojas is also said to support proper speech orientation and skin complexion. 
 
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# All the senses and perception of knowledge is also one of the function attributed to ''Ojas''<ref>Shilwant Aniket.Immunology: An Ayurvedic Aspect with reference to Oja and Vyadhiskamatva.Interrnational Journal of Ayurved and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; Available on http://ijapc.com/volume5-first-issue/V5-I1-7-P-53-64.pdf</ref>
 
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In a nutshell functions of ''Ojas'' is to provide Strength, to sustain the integrity of life by maintaining vital force - ''[[Prana]]'', also claimed to be one of the ''Pranayatana'' (where Prana dwells).
 
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===Pathological Variation of Ojas===
 
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Immunology as seen from [[Ayurveda]] perspective broadly deals with two aspects - ''Vyadhi bala virodhitwa'' and ''Vyadhyutpada pratibandhakatwa''. Certainly this ''Ojas'' varies as per individual which depends majorly on the nutritional status of that individual. The nutritional status enhances the stability, strength, vigor element inside body represented by - ''Kapha dosha''. Thus the normal strength of body is nothing other than ''Kapha dosha'' which is further dealt as ''Ojas'' whereas the deviated state is in waste (''Mala'')form. Pathology in Immunological stream as per ''[[Ayurveda]]'' involves three basic classifications as - ''Oja Vistramsa, Oja Vyapat'' and ''Oja Kshaya''.
 
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Here these abnormalities of ''Ojas'' can be understood as - ''Oja Vistramsa'' – Immunity compromised disorders;''Oja Vyapat''– Immunity suppressed symptoms and ''Oja Kshaya''– Immune deficiency related symptoms<ref>http://ijapc.com/volume10-third-issue/MNAPC-V10-I3-42-p-295-306.pdf</ref>
 
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# ''Oja Vistramsa'' - It is raised due to suitable etiological factors causing dislodging or displacement of ''Oja''the unctuous part collected at each ''dhatu'' level.
 
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# ''Oja Vyapat'' - The vitiated ''Ojas'' as mentioned in ''Oja Vistramsa''when lodged in a particular place while roaming throughout body may lead to this condition called - ''Oja Vyapat''.
 
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# ''Oja Kshaya'' - Quantitative loss of Ojas in the body is said to be ''Oja Kshaya''
 
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'''Table 1:Pathological features of deviation in ''Ojas'''
 
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Table showing features of pathology in ''Ojas'' as - ''Oja Vistramsa'', ''Oja Vyapat'' and ''Oja Kshaya''<ref>Vaidya  Yadavji  Trikamji  Acharya, Sushruta  Samhita  of  Sushruta  with Nibhandhasamgraha  Commentary,  Sutra Sthana  15,  Choukhamba  Orientalia, Varanasi, 2007</ref>
 
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{| class="wikitable"
 
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!'''''Oja Vistramsa'''''!!''Oja Vyapat''!!''Oja Kshaya''
 
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|-
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Sandhi vishlesh'''''– Lethargic, looseness and displacement of joints
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Stabdha guru gatrata''''' – Feeling of stiffness and rigidity in body 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Murcha''''' – Fainting or unconsciousness
 
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|-
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Gatra sadanam''''' – Fatigue and weakness in body
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Vata shofa''''' – Edematous swelling due to vitiation of ''Vata dosha''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Mamsa kshaya''''' – Emaciation and muscle tissue wasting
 
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|-
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Dosha chyavanam''''' – Vitiated ''[[Dosha]]'' migrates from their own locations and are capable to create disease where they gets lodged in body (''Kha-vaigunya'') 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Varna bheda''''' – Change in normal complexion
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Moha''''' – Giddiness, lack of decisive power
 
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|-
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Kriya sannirodha''''' – Impairment in the functions and activities of body at physical and psychological level. 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Glani''''' – Fatigue of all senses
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Pralapa''''' – Irrelevant talk
 
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|-
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | - 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Tandra''''' – Drowsiness; '''''Nidra''''' – Sleepiness or Somnolence;
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | '''''Marana''''' – Death
 
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|-
 
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|}
 
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''Acharya Charak'' have mentioned a very detailed features with respect to loss of ''Oja'' viz. ''Oja Kshaya''.
 
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बिभेति दुर्बलोऽभीક્ષ્णं ध्यायति व्यथितेन्द्रियः । दुश्छायो दुर्मना रूક્ષઃ ક્ષાमश्चैवोजसः ક્ષये ॥ च.सु.१७<ref> Tripathi Bramhanand, Charak Samhita with Hindi Commentary, Choukhamba Surbharti Prakashan Varanasi, reprint 2004,Sutra Sthana 17</ref>
 
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Individual with depleted ''Ojas'' may always have a feeling of fearfulness, weak, fatigue specially at its senses, altered skin complexion, lack of self confidence, dry and rough skin with remarkable emaciation of body.
 
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Following are the etiological factors for depletion of ''Ojas'' (''Oja Kshaya'') as mentioned in - [[Sushruta Samhita]] -
 
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अभिघातात् ક્ષयात् कोपात् शोकात् ध्यानात् श्रमात् ક્ષુधः । ओजः संક્ષીयते ह्येभ्यो धातुग्रहणनिःसृतम् ॥ सु.सू.१५/२८<ref>Vaidya Yadavji Trikamji Acharya, Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta with Hindi Commentary, Choukhamba Orientalia,Varanasi, 2007, Sutra Sthana 15/28</ref>
 
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Any injury, undernourishment due to impaired metabolism, anger, excessive thinking or grief, vigorous physical work and voracious hunger may cause depletion of ''Ojas'' in body. Further with the help of ''Vata dosha'' this ''Ojas'' is then easily displaced from its prime seat - ''Hridaya'' ([[Heart]]) which is then responsible for causing any of the three above mentioned abnormalities of ''Ojas''.
 
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===Importance===
 
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The importance of ''Ojas'' can be very well understood by the fact that it is developed very first prior to the physiological entities''dosha''. The functions of the normal ''Dosha'' is regulated after stabilization of the ''Ojas'' component inside the body. It is by the virtue of the ''Dosha'' that every ''Dhatu'' is developed in a healthy and normal way. ''Ojas'' is responsible for providing the excellent state and bestowing all good qualities to the generating ''Dhatu''. ''Ojas'' is replenished by the excellent nectar part with good qualities from the ''dhatu'' as like the bee which collects pure honey and cream part from the flowers and fruits.
 
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Importance of ''Ojas'' lies in the very fact that even after performing major role in sustaining the integrity of life it is not at all included in the category of - ''Dosha, Dhatu'' or ''Mala''. ''Ojas'' does not satisfy the criteria of ''Dosha'' of formation of ''Prakriti'', thus it is not a Dosha. ''Dhatu'' are having specific property of providing nourishment and producing the next ''Dhatu'' in the series which is not accomplished by ''Ojas''. This might be the reason why ''Ojas'' is not called as the eight ''dhatu'' in the cascade of seven dhatus mentioned in [[Ayurveda]]. Lastly, the ''Ojas'' is claimed to be the purest and excellent part and thus it is not included under the ''Mala'' category. However, this part is having an exception where ''Acharya Vagbhata'' the author of ''Ashtang Hridaya'' claims ''Ojas'' as the ''Mala'' part of ''Shukra dhatu.''
 
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''Dosha'' the very physiological entity of the body regulating every action, process of the body, being different from the ''Ojas'' are unable to perform their allocated functions without support and assistance of ''Ojas''.<ref>Gupta Kaviraj Atrideva, Ashtanga Samgraha with Shashilekha Hindi Commentary of Indu, Sutra Sthana 19/36, Choukhamba Krushnadas Academy, Varanasi reprint, 2005</ref>
 
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Existence of ''Ojas'' is the reason due to which life exists while the absence of or major loss of ''Ojas'' is responsible for death.<ref>Gupta Kaviraj Atrideva, Ashtanga Hridayam with Hindi Commentary, Sutra Sthana 11/38, Choukhamba Prakashan, Varanasi reprint, 2012</ref>
 
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'''Concise table for Oja'''<ref>Dr. Nandini Dilip Dharagalkar, Sharir Kriya Vidynan, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, First Edition, 2008, Pg. No. 568</ref>
 
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{| class="wikitable"
 
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!Author'''!! Appearance''' !! ''Odor''!!''Taste''!! ''Touch''!! ''Special features''
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Charak''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Red, Yellowish 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Parched cereal
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Sweet
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Shita'' (Cool), ''Mrudu'' (Soft), ''Snigdha'' (Unctuous), ''Mrutsna'' (Slimy), ''Prasanna'' (Fresh), ''Guru'' (Heavy)
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Located in Heart, excellent part of all ''Dhatu'', provides strength to body and mind
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Chakradatta''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | White 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" | -
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Shukra vishesh'', necessary for all ''Dhatu'', ''Para Apara Ojas''
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Sushruta''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | White, Yellowish 
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Sweet
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Somatmaka'' (Cool), ''Mrudu'' (Soft), ''Snigdha'' (Unctuous), ''Mrutsna'' (Slimy), ''Prasanna'' (Fresh), ''Guru'' (Heavy), Pure
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Pranayatana, unctuous part of ''Dhatu'', provides strength to body, ''Para Oja''- 8 drops and ''Apara Oja'' - Half ''Anjali''
 
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|-
 
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! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Dalhana''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | White, Oily 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Ushma, Jivashonita''
 
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|-
 
−
! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Vagbhatta''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Yellowish Red 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Snigdha'' (Unctuous), ''Sara'' (Fluidy and movable) 
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Located in Heart, Teja nourishing factor, ''Shukra mala''
 
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|-
 
−
! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Arundatta''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | - 
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | Quantity 6 drops
 
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|-
 
−
! rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Sharangdhara''
 
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| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | - 
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | -
 
−
| rowspan="1" style="text-align: left;" | ''Updhatu'' of ''Shukra''
 
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|-
 
−
|}
 
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===References===
 

Revision as of 06:48, 15 May 2020

Essence of body tissues.

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