Talk:Maricha

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Piper nigrum L.

Maricha
Section/Chapter Herb database/Maricha
Botanical name(s) Piper nigrum L.
Family Piperaceae
Availability Available
Contributors Dravyaguna Team
Year of publication 2025
Publisher Charak Samhita Research, Training and Skill Development Centre
DOI Awaited

Introduction and Botanical Identity

Maricha, the dried fruit of Piper nigrum L. (Family: Piperaceae), is universally celebrated as the "King of Spices" and occupies a central position in traditional Ayurvedic formulations and modern evidence-based pharmacognosy.[1] Characterized by its intense pungency, Maricha is a vital constituent of classical compounds like Trikatu Churna (the synergy of Shunthi, Pippali, and Maricha). In contemporary pharmacology, its primary crystalline alkaloid, piperine, is recognized as the world's first documented natural bioavailability enhancer, revolutionizing the administration of phytopharmaceuticals and synthetic drugs alike.[2]

  • Botanical Name: Piper nigrum L.
  • Family: Piperaceae
  • Part Used: Dried Fruit (Peppercorns)
  • Vernacular Names: Maricha (Sanskrit), Kali Mirch (Hindi), Black Pepper (English), Milagu (Tamil)


English name

Black Pepper

Therapeutic uses

Swasa, sula, krumiroga, tavakaroga[3]

Synonyms in Charak Samhita

Maricha, Vellaja(plant is climber), Krushna(fruits are black in colour), Ushana(causing burning sensation), Suvruta, Katu(pungent taste), Dharmapatana(maricha is stored in ports as an item to export to different countries)

Varieties

Raja Nighantu

Mentioned 2 types of varieties[4]

  1. Maricha
  2. Sweta maricha

Ayurvedic Pharmacodynamics (Dravyaguna Profile)

In classical Ayurvedic medicine, Maricha is distinct for its intense penetrating capability (Tikshna Guna). Unlike Shunthi, which transitions into a sweet post-digestive form, Maricha maintains its sharp, biting properties throughout its metabolic cycle, allowing it to cut through thick accumulations of mucus and clear obstructions in cellular channels (Srotas).[5]

Pharmacological Attribute Ayurvedic Classification Clinical Significance
Rasa (Taste) Katu (Pungent) Instantly stimulates taste receptors, ignites gastric fire (Agni), and treats anorexia.[5]
Guna (Physical Quality) Laghu (Light), Tikshna (Sharp/Penetrating), Rooksha (Dry) Liquefies and scrapes away stagnant phlegm (Chedana); breaks down metabolic toxins (Ama).[5]
Virya (Potency) Ushna (Hot) Strongly pacifies Kapha and Vata doshas; increases peripheral circulation.
Vipaka (Post-Digestive Taste) Katu (Pungent) Maintains a high catabolic and eliminative action post-digestion.[5]
Karma (Primary Action) Pramathi / Krimighna Mechanically expels toxins from deep tissues; exhibits direct antimicrobial properties.[1]

Difference in wet and dry form of Maricha

Properties
Sr.no. Pharmacological criteria Properties (Dry) Properties (Wet)
1 Taste (rasa) Pungent (katu) --
2 Potency (veerya) Hot (ushna) Not too hot (naatyushna)
3 Post digestion effect (vipaka) Pungent (katu) Sweet (madhura)
4 Qualities (guna) Light (laghu), Sharp (tikshna) Heavy (guru)
5 Actions (karma) Pacify vata and kapha --

Reference in Charak Samhita and its actions

Herbs and their activities
Sr.no. Reference in Charak Samhita Activity
1 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 2/3 Sirovirechana (Errhine therapy)
2 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 2/23 Krimighniyavagu (Gruel for krimi (worm infestation)
3 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 4/9(6) Deepaniya (Appetisers)mahakashaya
4 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 4/9(15) Krimighna (anti-helmintics)mahakashaya
5 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 4/9(27) Shirovirechanopag ( helping nasal errhine therapy)mahakashaya
6 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 4/9(45) Shoolaprashaman (anti-spasmodics)mahakashaya
7 Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 27/298 Krutanna Varga
8 Cha.Sa.Vimana Sthana 8/142 Katuskandha (group of pungent drugs)
9 Cha.Sa.Kalpa Sthana 7/15 Preparations of Trivruta
10 Cha.Sa.Kalpa Sthana 7/25 Preparations of Trivrut Awaleha
11 Cha.Sa.Kalpa Sthana 7/40 Preparation of Kalyanaka Guda
12 Cha.Sa.Kalpa Sthana 12/23 Churna Yoga
13 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/1/30 Ingredient in Bruhaniya Gutika
14 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/2/24 Ingredient in Vrushya Dadhisar
15 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/4/11 Ingredient in Vrushya mamsa Gutika
16 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/4/21 Ingredient in Vrushya Pupalika  
17 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/1/30 Ingredient in Bruhaniya Gutika
18 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/2/24 Ingredient in Vrushya Dadhisar
19 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/4/11 Ingredient in Vrushya mamsa Gutika
20 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 2/4/21 Ingredient in Vrushya Pupalika  
21 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 5/65 Ingredient in Trayushanaadi ghrita
22 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 5/69 Ingredient of Hingusauvarchaladya ghrita
23 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 5/71 Ingredient of Hapushadya ghrita
24 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 5/79 Ingredient of Hingvadi churna
25 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 5/142 Ingredient of Dashamuli Ghrita
26 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 6/42 Ingredient in Madhvasav
27 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/48 As Nashya in Kushth
28 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/61 Ingredient in Kushthaghna Yoga
29 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/65 Ingredient in Mustadi Churna
30 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/74 Ingredient in Madhvasav
31 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/77 Ingredient in Kanakabindurisht
32 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/87 Bahyaprayogarth lepa in Kushth (external application)
33 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/109 Ingredient in Tiktekshvadi Taila

For Abhyang in Vata-Kaphaj Kushth(skin disease)

34 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/113 Ingredient in Kanakakshiri Taila
35 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 7/117 Ingredient in Sidhma Lepa
36 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 8/142 Ingredient in Yavani shadav
37 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 8/145 Ingredient in Talishadi Churna
38 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/34 Ingredient in Hingvadi Ghrita
39 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/49 Ingredient in Lasunadya Ghrita
40 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/54 Ingredient in Apara lasunadya Ghrita
41 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/65 Used as Nashya and Anjan prayogarth
42 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/67 Used as Nashya and Anjan prayogarth
43 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/68 Ingredient in Siddharthakadi Agad
44 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 9/70 Ingredient in Siddharthakadi Agad
45 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 10/20 Ingredient in Mahapanchagavya Ghrita
46 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 10/43 As a Nasya dravya(nasal errhines)
47 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 10/46 Ingredient in Kayasthadi varti
48 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 10/48 Ingredient in Mustadi varti
49 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 11/40 Ingredient in Amrutprash Ghrita
50 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 11/67 Ingredient in Chaturtha Sarpigud
51 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 11/74 Ingredient in Pancham Sarpimodak
52 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 11/86 Ingredient in Saindhavadi Churna
53 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/21 In treatment of Kaphaj Svayathu(oedema)
54 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/24 In treatment of Vataj Svayathu(oedema)
55 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/25 In treatment of Vataj Svayathu(oedema)
56 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/27 For bhinna varch in treatment of Vataj Svayathu(oedema)
57 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/29 Ingredient in Gandiradhyarisht
58 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/32 Ingredient in Ashtashatorisht
59 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/36 Ingredient in Punarnavadhyarisht
60 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/42 Ingredient in Krishnadi Churna
61 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/43 Ingredient in Kshar Gudika
62 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/50 Ingredient in Kansaharitaki Avaleh
63 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/55 Ingredient in Chitrakadi Ghrita
64 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 12/62 As a Pathya Diet In treatment of Shvayathu(oedema)
65 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/102 In treatment of sannipata udararoga(Generalized enlargement of Abdomen)
66 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/103 In treatment of kaphodara(takraprayoga)(Generalized enlargement of Abdomen)
67 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/105 In treatment of dakodara(takraprayoga)
68 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/122 After virechana (balavruddhi arthe) mixed with dugdha
69 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/126 As an ingredient of narayan churna
70 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/137 As an ingredient of nilinadya churna
71 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 13/148 Kalka  used in udara roga with ksheer
72 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 14/62 As an ingredient of traushnadi churna
73 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 14/92 Used in yavagu
74 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 14/107 As an ingredient of cavyadighrit
75 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 14/138 As an ingredient of abhayarista
76 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 14/158 As an ingredient of kanakarista
77 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/87 As an ingredient of traushnaadi ghrita
78 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/88 As an ingredient of pancamuladhya ghrit evum churna
79 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/96 As an ingredient of citrakadhya gutika
80 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/102 In condition of chhardi,arsha,granthi,shoola(vomiting, analpolyp with pellet stool, pain in abdomen)
81 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/105 Marica should be given with ajaji,haritaki etc
82 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/108 Used in kaphapittaja grahani
83 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/112 As an ingredient of maricadhya churna
84 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/120 Used as ingredient of yavagu
85 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/132 As an ingredient of takrarista
86 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/137 This drug is used in treatment of pittajagrahani as an ingredient of Bhunimbadhya churna
87 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/164 As an ingredient of Kiratadhya churna (Pittaja Grahani chiktsa)
88 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/168 As an ingredient of Madhvarista
89 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/177 Used in treatment of Kaphaja grahani
90 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 15/189 As an ingredient of Bhallataka Kshara
91 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 16/129 Used as Pathya in Shakhashrit Kamla(kamala in body tissue with obstructive pathology)
92 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 17/97, 17/98, 17/100 Used in yusha preparation for hikka svasa
93 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 17/104 Used as annapana for hikka svasa
94 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 17/110 Kalka is used in hikka svasa
95 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 18/71 As an ingredient of praproundarika dhuma
96 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 18/73 As an ingredient of dhumapan yoga
97 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 18/104 As a yoga dravya.
98 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 18/180 As a leha dravya.
99 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 19/107 As an ingredient of ajajyadi churna
100 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 19/111 As a yoga dravya
101 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 20/35 As a pathya ahara in kaphaja chhardi
102 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 20/39 As an ingredient of Manahshiladi yoga
103 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/50 For sangya -sthapana in 6th vega of visha
104 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/183 Used in netra - gata visha, as a anjana prayoga
105 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 23/193 As an ingredient of Sindhuvaradi yoga
106 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/127 Used in vataja madatyaya(Intoxication) with Dadima swarasa
107 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/128 Used as swarasa in Vataja madatyaya(Intoxication)
108 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/172 As an ingredient of Vyosha yusha
109 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/177 As an ingredient of Ashtanga lavana (Kaphaja madatyaya)
110 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/181 Used as raga in kaphaja madatyaya (madatyaya)
111 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 24/183 Used in pachana(digestant)
112 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/13 Used to make Udavarta varti
113 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/55 As an ingredient of Vyoshadi churn used in Kaphaja mutrakruchhra(dysuria)
114 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/60 As an ingredient of Pashanbhedadi  churna
115 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/87 As an ingredient of Trushanadi Ghrita
116 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/98 As an ingredient of Udumbaravleha
117 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/138 Used in vataja pratishyaya
118 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/150 Used in Kaphaja Pratishyaya
119 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/152 Used in Kaphaja Pratishyaya for pradhamana
120 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/156 Pathya anna in kaphaja pratishyaya
121 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/186 Used in Kaphaja Siroroga for Avapeeda nasya
122 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/192 As an ingredient of Kshara gutika
123 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/194 As an ingredient of Kalak churna
124 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/198 As an ingredient of Mrudvikadi churna
125 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/216,217 Used in Kavala in Arochaka
126 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/219 Used in arochaka nashaka vati
127 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/242 As an ingredient of Saindhavadi churna
128 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/247 As an ingredient of Churnanjana
129 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/252 As an ingredient of Sukhavati varti
130 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/261 As an ingredient of Dhatryadi rasakriya
131 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 26/287 Used in Kaphaja swarbheda
132 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 29/152 As an ingredient of Triphaladi kalka in tridoshaja shola
133 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 30/72 As an ingredient of Pippalyadi varti
134 Cha.Sa.Chikitsa Sthana 30/92 As an ingredient of Pushyanuga churna

Dose

  • 250 mg – 1 gm of the drug in powder form[6]

Important formulation

As per A.P.I.[7]

  • Marichadi gutika
  • Marichadi taila
  • Trikatu churna

Current availability

Available India – western coast of india

Current researches

Phytochemical Architecture

The unique therapeutic efficacy of Maricha lies within its specialized volatile fractions and alkaloidal profile localized in the pericarp and seed:[1][8]

  • Piperine (1-piperoylpiperidine): The primary trans-trans alkaloid responsible for up to 5% to 9% of the fruit's crude weight. It serves as the lead chemical marker for its biological action.[2]
  • Piper Isomers: Isopiperine, chavicine, and isochavicine, which modulate the subtle sensory profiles of the spice.
  • Minor Alkaloids & Amides: Piperidine, piperettine, piperanine, and guineensine.
  • Essential Volatile Oils: Rich in monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (such as β-caryophyllene, pinene, limonene, and phellandrene), which provide its characteristic aromatic and warming benefits.[8]

Modern Pharmacological Validation & Therapeutic Efficacy

Bioavailability Enhancement (The Natural Yogavahi Effect)

Maricha is a potent bioenhancer, significantly augmenting the systemic absorption, plasma concentration, and therapeutic half-life of co-administered drugs and nutrients.[2][9]

Mechanisms of Bioenhancement:

  1. Enzymatic Inhibition: Piperine non-specifically inactivates major phase I drug-metabolizing enzymes—principally Cytochrome P450 CYP3A4—and phase II UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT). This drastically curtails first-pass intestinal and hepatic degradation.[9]
  2. Efflux Pump Suppression: It reversibly blocks P-glycoprotein (P-gp), preventing the active cellular expulsion of target molecules back into the intestinal lumen.[2]
  3. Mucosal Alteration: It increases local mesenteric blood supply and modifies epithelial cell dynamics, enhancing passive transcellular transport across the brush border membrane.[8]

Through these combined pathways, small doses of piperine (5–20 mg) can elevate the oral bioavailability of compounds like Curcumin by up to 2000%, as well as enhance the performance of critical antibiotics (e.g., Rifampicin, Amoxicillin).[2]

Gastrointestinal Secretory and Prokinetic Action (Deepana & Pachana)

Maricha exerts a major regulatory influence across the alimentary canal:[1]

  • Enzymatic Activation: Ingestion triggers sensory receptors that stimulate a sharp rise in pancreatic lipase, amylase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin secretion, accelerating chemical digestion.[1]
  • Bile Secretion: It enhances the hepatic release of bile acids, optimizing the emulsification and absorption of dietary lipids and fat-soluble vitamins.[8]
  • Motility Regulation: It exhibits a dual, balancing effect—relieving smooth muscle spasms to counteract diarrhea while accelerating gastric emptying to relieve flatulence and abdominal bloating.[1]

Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Metabolic Regulation

  • Inflammatory Axis: Piperine directly interrupts the signaling of Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB), resulting in the down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), and Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2).[8] This supports its traditional clinical use in chronic respiratory diseases like asthma.
  • Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical trials indicate that Maricha extracts lower systemic oxidative stress, lower plasma cholesterol levels, and counteract insulin resistance by modifying lipid clearance and improving GLUT4 transporter translocation.[10]
                 Maricha Fruit Extract (Piperine) [1,4]
                           │
        ┌──────────────────┼──────────────────┐
        ▼                  ▼                  ▼
Inhibition of          Blockade of       Inhibition of
Hepatic CYP3A4 [5]     P-gp Efflux [2]    NF-κB Pathway [4]
        │                  │                  │
        ▼                  ▼                  ▼
  ↓ First-Pass       ↓ Intestinal        ↓ TNF-α, IL-6,
   Metabolism          Expulsion           & COX-2
        │                  │                  │
        └─────────┬────────┘                  ▼
                  ▼                  Clinical: Anti-Asthmatic
         Clinical: Enhanced          & Anti-Inflammatory [4]
        Bioavailability of Drugs [2]

Clinical Safety, Dosage, and Contraindications

Maricha is designated as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) for regular consumption. However, its highly penetrating and heating nature requires careful administration in therapeutic dosages.[5]

  • Standard Therapeutic Dosage:
    • Churna (Crude Powder): 250 mg to 1 g daily, ideally taken post-meals with honey or ghee to coat and protect the gastric mucosa.[5]
    • Standardized Piperine Extract (95%): 5 mg to 20 mg daily.
  • Adverse Effects: Excessive therapeutic doses on an empty stomach can trigger localized gastric burning (Daha), esophageal reflux, or hyperacidity, particularly in individuals with a Pitta-vitiated constitution.[5]
  • Drug Interactions: Because piperine actively alters CYP3A4 and P-gp clearance, individuals taking narrow-therapeutic-index drugs (such as Phenytoin, Digoxin, or Theophylline) must exercise caution, as co-administration can increase serum drug concentrations to toxic levels.[9]
  • Contraindications: Acute peptic ulcers, ulcerative colitis, severe acid reflux disease, and active gastrointestinal bleeding.

External links

https://cb.imsc.res.in/imppat/phytochemical/Piper%20nigrum

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Rather, M. A., et al. (2022). "Therapeutic Role of Piper nigrum L (Black Pepper) and Pharmacological Activities." International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research, 73(1), 15-22.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Kesarwani, K., & Gupta, R. (2013). "Bioavailability enhancers of herbal origin: An overview." Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 3(4), 253-266.
  3. ↑ Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 3 :53
  4. ↑ Dr. Indradev Tripathi , Raja Nighantu of pandit Narhari, ed.2006, Chaukhambha Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, pippalyadi varga verse no- 32,34
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API). Piper nigrum L. - Fruit Monograph. Part-I, Volume I, Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
  6. ↑ Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 3 :53
  7. ↑ Anonymous. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Department of Ayush, Ministry of Health and Family welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Part I. 1986; Volume 3 :53
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Zhai, W. J., et al. (2020). "Piperine: A review of its biological effects and mechanisms of action." Phytomedicine, 72, 153245.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Atal, C. K., et al. (1981). "Biochemical basis of enhanced drug bioavailability by piperine: Evidence of drug metabolism inhibition." Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 219(1), 164-171.
  10. ↑ Derosa, G., et al. (2016). "A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the effects of piperine on metabolic syndrome." Phytotherapy Research, 30(11), 1800-1806.
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