Changes

''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' therapies have common aim to provide positive health and prevention of diseases by increasing vigor of healthy person and so, [[Vajikarana]] is described just after [[Rasayana]] chapter. Health scientists are showing great interest in screening classical ''rasayana'' drugs for their antioxidant activity and research reveals good results. Studies on ''amalaki rasayana'' <ref>Dwivedi V, Anandan EM, Mony RS, Muraleedharan TS, Valiathan MS, Mutsuddi M, et al. In vivo effects of traditional Ayurvedic formulations in Drosophila melanogaster relate with therapeutic applications. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37113.</ref> shows increased longevity and on Drosophila melanogaster <ref> Fontana L, Partridge L, Longo VD. Extending healthy life span – From yeast to humans. Science. 2010;328:321–6.</ref> there is reduced oxidative damage to extend lifespan. Many drugs are described as ''rasayanas'' and ''vajikara'' both. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) has deteriorating effect on sperm. This has been increasing due to changing lifestyle and exposure to environmental pollution. Spermatozoa normally produce ROS in a normal physiological process. The amount of ROS produced is to be carefully controlled. Imbalance between the generation and scavenging of ROS may lead to damage to DNA or other important structures. Spermatozoa lack cytoplasmic defensive enzymes, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, which are involved in the protection of most cell types from ROS induced peroxidative damage. Large amounts of unsaturated fatty acids are observed in plasma membranes of spermatozoa, those are particularly vulnerable to free radical attack.<ref>Jones R and Mann T (1973) Lipid peroxidation in spermatozoa. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 184,103–107.</ref> The subfertile men have higher concentrations of ROS in seminal plasma, whereas an inverse correlation exists between ROS concentration and motility.<ref>Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N, Skakkebaek NE, Review Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. BMJ. 1992 Sep 12; 305(6854):609-13</ref> Many ''rasayanas'' act as antioxidants, so they can also be used to enhance sperm quality and quantity. Thus, mutual correlation and common mode of action justifies description of ''vajikarana'' just after ''rasayana'' therapy.

''Rasayana'' and ''vajikarana'' therapies have common aim to provide positive health and prevention of diseases by increasing vigor of healthy person and so, [[Vajikarana]] is described just after [[Rasayana]] chapter. Health scientists are showing great interest in screening classical ''rasayana'' drugs for their antioxidant activity and research reveals good results. Studies on ''amalaki rasayana'' <ref>Dwivedi V, Anandan EM, Mony RS, Muraleedharan TS, Valiathan MS, Mutsuddi M, et al. In vivo effects of traditional Ayurvedic formulations in Drosophila melanogaster relate with therapeutic applications. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37113.</ref> shows increased longevity and on Drosophila melanogaster <ref> Fontana L, Partridge L, Longo VD. Extending healthy life span – From yeast to humans. Science. 2010;328:321–6.</ref> there is reduced oxidative damage to extend lifespan. Many drugs are described as ''rasayanas'' and ''vajikara'' both. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) has deteriorating effect on sperm. This has been increasing due to changing lifestyle and exposure to environmental pollution. Spermatozoa normally produce ROS in a normal physiological process. The amount of ROS produced is to be carefully controlled. Imbalance between the generation and scavenging of ROS may lead to damage to DNA or other important structures. Spermatozoa lack cytoplasmic defensive enzymes, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, which are involved in the protection of most cell types from ROS induced peroxidative damage. Large amounts of unsaturated fatty acids are observed in plasma membranes of spermatozoa, those are particularly vulnerable to free radical attack.<ref>Jones R and Mann T (1973) Lipid peroxidation in spermatozoa. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 184,103–107.</ref> The subfertile men have higher concentrations of ROS in seminal plasma, whereas an inverse correlation exists between ROS concentration and motility.<ref>Carlsen E, Giwercman A, Keiding N, Skakkebaek NE, Review Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. BMJ. 1992 Sep 12; 305(6854):609-13</ref> Many ''rasayanas'' act as antioxidants, so they can also be used to enhance sperm quality and quantity. Thus, mutual correlation and common mode of action justifies description of ''vajikarana'' just after ''rasayana'' therapy.

For many years, decline in human semen quality and fertility rates has been a concern.<ref>MacLeod J, Heim L M. Characteristics and variations in semen specimens in 100 normal young men. Journal of Urology. 1945;54:474–482.</ref> Environmental and occupational pollutants, changes in lifestyles, exposure to toxic agents, and changes in dietary habits are observed among the most commonly cited factors associated with these declines.<ref>Tielemans E, Burdorf A, te Velde ER, Weber RF, van Kooij RJ, Veulemans H, Heederik DJ, Occupationally related exposures and reduced semen quality: a case-control study, Fertil Steril. 1999 Apr; 71(4):690-6.</ref> The environmental and lifestyle factors causing subfertility shall be targeted for curative or preventive measures. Environmental stress causes increase in the number of free radicals (i.e., hydrogen peroxide [H2O2] and reactive oxygen species [ROS] that cause apoptosis in the spermatogenic cell.<ref>Wang X, Sharma RK, Sikka SC. Oxidative stress is associated with increased apoptosis leading to spermatoozoa DNA damage in patients with male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2003;80:531–5.</ref> Chronic or severe stress leads to anovulation and amenorrhea in women <ref>Barnea, E. R., and Tal, J. Stress-r elated reproductive failure. J. In Vitro Fertil. Embryo Transfer 8: 15-23 (1991).</ref> and to decrease in sperm count, motility, and morphology in men.<ref>McGrady, A. V. Effects of psychological stress on male reproduction: a review. Arch. Androl. 131: 1-10 (1984).</ref> Smoking, alcohol, caffeine, pesticides, air pollution, bisphenol A,diseases like hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardio-vascular disease are related to deterioration of reproductive health by affecting sperm quality.  

For many years, decline in human semen quality and fertility rates has been a concern.<ref>MacLeod J, Heim L M. Characteristics and variations in semen specimens in 100 normal young men. Journal of Urology. 1945;54:474–482.</ref> Environmental and occupational pollutants, changes in lifestyles, exposure to toxic agents, and changes in dietary habits are observed among the most commonly cited factors associated with these declines.<ref>Tielemans E, Burdorf A, te Velde ER, Weber RF, van Kooij RJ, Veulemans H, Heederik DJ, Occupationally related exposures and reduced semen quality: a case-control study, Fertil Steril. 1999 Apr; 71(4):690-6.</ref> The environmental and lifestyle factors causing subfertility shall be targeted for curative or preventive measures. Environmental stress causes increase in the number of free radicals (i.e., hydrogen peroxide [H2O2] and reactive oxygen species [ROS] that cause apoptosis in the spermatogenic cell.<ref>Wang X, Sharma RK, Sikka SC. Oxidative stress is associated with increased apoptosis leading to spermatoozoa DNA damage in patients with male factor infertility. Fertil Steril. 2003;80:531–5.</ref> Chronic or severe stress leads to anovulation and amenorrhea in women <ref>Barnea, E. R., and Tal, J. Stress-r elated reproductive failure. J. In Vitro Fertil. Embryo Transfer 8: 15-23 (1991).</ref> and to decrease in sperm count, motility, and morphology in men.<ref>McGrady, A. V. Effects of psychological stress on male reproduction: a review. Arch. Androl. 131: 1-10 (1984).</ref> Smoking,<ref>Goverde HJ, Dekker HS, Janssen HJ, Bastiaans BA, Rolland R, Zielhuis GA.,Semen quality and frequency of smoking and alcohol consumption--an explorative study. Int J Fertil Menopausal Stud. 1995 May-Jun;40(3):135-8.</ref> alcohol,<ref>Joo KJ, Kwon YW, Myung SC, Kim TH, The effects of smoking and alcohol intake on sperm quality: light and transmission electron microscopy findings. J Int Med Res. 2012;40(6):2327-35.</ref> caffeine,<ref>Vine MF, Setzer RW Jr, Everson RB, Wyrobek AJ, Human sperm morphometry and smoking, caffeine, and alcohol consumption. Reprod Toxicol. 1997 Mar-Jun;11(2-3):179-84.</ref> pesticides, air pollution,<ref>Jurewicz J, Hanke W, Radwan M, Bonde JP, Environmental factors and semen quality.Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2009;22(4):305-29.</ref> bisphenol A,<ref>Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP. Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells. Endocrinology. 2004;145:592–603</ref> diseases like hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardio-vascular disease are related to deterioration of reproductive health<ref>Sunil Kumar, Archana Kumari, Shiva, Murarka, Lifestyle factors in deteriorating male reproductive health, Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol 47, August 2009, pp.615-624.</ref> by affecting sperm quality.  

==== Role of diet in ''vajikarana'' ====

==== Role of diet in ''vajikarana'' ====