Nyaya

The Sanskrit term ‘Nyaya’ or a maxim is defined as “an expression of general truth or principle.” Maxim packs a lot of meaning into a nugget of words. They are specifically used when characterizing a situation. It is a common occurrence or a story that can be applied as an aphorism, to sum up an event, situation, or circumstance. Since ancient times, the word 'nyaya' has been used in Sanskrit literature. As an alternative to 'dharma', the word 'Nyaya' has been used in Brahmanical texts and Taittiriya Samhitas. In public practice, the word 'justice (nyaya)' is regarded as an eternal and universally accepted general rule or principle.
The commentators (bhashyakara) define nyaya as a method for achieving any proposition or arriving at a definite principle.
There are 2 types of nyaya. 1) Laukika (commonly used) 2) Classical/ Shastriya (in ancient samhitas /science-based). Laukik Nyaya is the kind of justice practiced by the common and observed in daily life situations or events. In Vedas, Shastras, and Sanskrit literature, these judgments have been mainly used to enhance the beauty of literature.
In the same matter, these nyaya can be applied to understand etiopathogenesis and treatments of diseases.

Importance of study of Nyaya

A critical study of primary classical texts (brihatrayee) found that nyayas incorporated much less in the original text (moola patha). The commentators used different nyayas abundantly to help readers understand that specific context. So, nyayas in the literature of Ayurveda can be classified into two categories: nyayas in the original text (moola patha) and nyayas referred to in commentary.
In Ayurvedic literature, acharyas meticulously employed different nyayas:

• To beautify the literature
• To get the hidden or concealed meaning of a verse
• To attain determinative knowledge of Ayurvedic concepts
• To achieve success in the analysis of a principle
• For easy understanding of the subject matter
• For differential diagnosis
• In diagnosis and treatment aspects
• Usage of different drugs in various treatment modalities to prepare efficacious formulations (yogas)

One of the most relevant methods is the application of nyaya (maxim) in the shastra (science). So nyayas act as an essential tool for better understanding, analysis, and application of the concepts in Ayurveda. The present article deals with concepts of nyaya and its application in understanding ayurvedic concepts.

Contributors

Section/Chapter/topic	Concepts/ Nyaya
Authors	Joshi M. R. 1
Reviewers & Editors	Basisht G.2, Deole Y.S.3
Affiliations	1 Department of Sanskrit, Samhita and Siddhanta, All India Institute of Ayurveda, Goa, India 2 Rheumatologist, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A. 3 Department of Kayachikitsa, G. J. Patel Institute of Ayurvedic Studies and Research, New Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India
Correspondence emails	manvantar@gmail.com carakasamhita@gmail.com
Publisher	Charak Samhita Research, Training and Development Centre, I.T.R.A., Jamnagar, India & Symbiohealth Foundation, India
Date of publication:	May 17, 2024
DOI	10.47468/CSNE.2024.e01.s09.165

Etymology (nirukti)

According to Sanskrit grammar (Vyakarana Shastra), Nyaya is defined as a way of going towards the real meaning. "Nyaya" word is derived from the combination of 'Ni' Upasarga +'in' Dhatu +('घय्') suffix (pratyaya) in various Sanskrit dictionaries; "Nyaya" word has been defined in various definitions and synonyms. These definitions are mentioned below:

Definitions:

1. Niyamena iyate iti (नियमेन इयते इति न्यायः।)-Nyaya is that which has rules.[Shabdakalpadruma], [Halayudhakosha]
2. Niyante prapyante vivakshitartha yen iti (नीयन्ते प्राप्यन्ते विवक्षितार्थाः येनेति न्यायः ।)- Nyaya is that by which the defined meanings are provided and attained. [Shabdakalpadruma]
3. Yuktimoolakadrishant vishesha nyaya (युक्तिमूलकदृशन्तविषेषः न्यायः ।) The special judgment of the logical view*[Shabdakalpadruma]
4. Shad darshanantargata vishesha nyaya (षड्दर्षनान्तर्गतविषेषः न्यायः ।) Special judgment within the six philosophies [Shabdakalpadruma]
5. Pramananugrahakastako nyaya (प्रमाणानुग्राहकस्तको न्यायः ।) - Proof gracious head is nyaya [Vachaspatyam]
6. Nishchitamiyate nirnayate anena iti nyaya (निश्चितमीयते निर्णयते अनेन इति न्यायः । )- the nyaya is that which is determined and decided by something [Vachaspatyam]

Synonyms:

Naya, neeta, neetisadhane, upaye, satayanjane, nirnaya, jayajaya mukti, jayopayamukti, bhoga, neeti

Different words to denote nyaya as per Monnier Williams Sanskrit-English dictionary -

• Method (paddhati, Upaya)
• Rule (A general or universal rule) ( niyama)
• System (vyavastha)

Plan (yojana)

• Judgment (nirnaya)

Principles (siddhnata) Way (marga)

• Logical proof (yukti udaharanam),
• Conclusion (nirnaya)
• Manner (niyama)
• Standard (mapadanda)

Some other meanings from the dictionary

1. That into which a thing goes back i.e., an original type, standard, method, rule, a general or universal rule, model, axiom, system, plan, right or fit manner or way, fitness, propriety (Monier Williams, 1951).
2. A lawsuit, legal proceeding, judicial sentences, and judgment (Monier Williams, 1951).
3. A logical or syllogistic argument or inference (Monier Williams, 1951).
4. A system of philosophy delivered by Gautama (Monier Williams, 1951).
5. Likeness, analogy, a popular maxim, or apposite illustration (Monier Williams, 1951).

Definition of the term Nyaya with its different interpretations

Mimamsa Nyaya Prakasanam interpreted nyaya as the tattva (truth) with logic (Vettinad Sreedharan Nair, 1989).
An important rule of interpretation in Hindu law from the Yajnavalkyasmriti (Y.S.) deals with resolving a situation in which two authoritative rules contradict one another. There, it is mentioned that when there is a conflict between two Smriti texts, Nyaya (maxim) is more vital than Vyavahara (practice) (Donald R. Davis, Jr., 2007).
In the commentary, Voeramitrodaya at Dharmakosha Varnashrama dharma Kanda stated that Nyaya means reasoning that establishes the scope of each respective rule (Donald R. Davis, Jr., 2007).
Other commentaries such as Mitaksara, and Apararka at Dharmakosha Varnashrama dharma kanda, 1.82 and 1.84, respectively, connect Nyaya with specific maxims of the grammatical and Mimamsa traditions that are used to resolve conflicts between rules. (Donald R. Davis, Jr., 2007)
Nyaya (maxim) is "an expression of well-known truth or principle" (Raja Radha Kanta Deva, 1967). In Sanskrit, the maxim is recognized under the term of Nyaya. 'Maxim' cannot be taken exactly as the equivalent of Nyaya, but adopted because many great scholars had already done so (Colonel G.A. Jacob, 1911). Nyaya has a range of meanings from maxim to reason and logic, even to justice and common sense. In this case, ambiguity is preserved by the commentators as to whether nyaya means reasoning or a maxim.

A brief history of nyayas

Nyayas (maxims) are specifically used when characterizing a situation. Explanation of Nyaya is found from the Vedic period to Purana, Upanishad, Kavya, Darshana, etc. Ayurveda, being the upaveda of Atharvaveda, also explains various maxims to enlighten their treatise and for the easy understanding of the topics. As these maxims are commonly used by the people, Ayurveda Acharyas found it an easy tool for clarification of the views that they want to put forth in their quotations (sutras). Later the commentators of these sutras integrated several nyayas to explore the exact meaning of the actual verses.
In a compilation of nyayas, it is explained that the nyayas can be dealt with under three distinct heads, and are either illustrations (drishtanta), rules, or principles (as in the case of paribhashas), topics (adhikaras) (as in the case of the kapinjala nyaya) (Colonel G.A. Jacob, 1911).

Few nyayas along with their practical utility as per Ayurvedic point of view.

Text	Timeline	Nyaya	Explanation
Arthapatti pramana, Brihadaranyakopanishad	900 BCE to 600 BCE	Dandapoopa Nyaya	If a rat can even cut the stick (danda) which is very hard, then it can cut the cake (Apoopa) which is very soft. This nyaya can be incorporated in the treatment aspect. If a drug can cure a chronic disease, then it can cure a mild disease.
Shathapatha Brahmana	5th century BCE	Munjadisheekoddharana Nyaya	Maxim is explained when talking about moksha(salvation). Just as the layers of a Munja (a type of grass) stick come off, the soul detaches from external things to achieve ultimate salvation.
Ramayana	5000 BC	Ashoka Vanika Nyaya	Ravana kept Seeta in Ashoka Vana. He could have kept her in any other garden or prison, but he chose the garden for no special reason and kept her there. Thus, whenever a specific reason is not found to occur a thing, this nyaya is used.
Mahabharata	3000 BC	Simhavalokana Nyaya	A lion, after catching its food, gives a glance all around. Similarly, if the subject is glanced at superficially without going to its depth, this Nyaya is utilized. It is like an abstract or a brief introduction to the topic
Meemansa Darshana	4th century BCE	Dehalideepanyaya.	“Threshold” is known as Dehali in Sanskrit. When you place a lamp on a threshold, it sheds light both inside and outside. Similarly, when we achieve two results with a single task or activity, then this maxim can be quoted. For example, A drug may act for both deepana and pachana purposes. Balachaturbhadra Rasa is indicated both in Jwara and Atisara.
Patanjali Mahabhashya	B.C. Middle period of second century or 150 BC	Sthalipulaka Nyaya	We can check if all the grains are boiled, by taking one grain from the cooking pot. This is known as Sthalipulaka Nyaya. This principle can be applied when preparing medicine. By tasting a small amount of avaleha, we can determine if it is properly prepared or not.
Sankhyadarshana	4th century AD	Pangvandha Nyaya	This is explained while describing the Srushti Utpatti. Like a blind person, describing an elephant, everyone states their theories about the evolution of the Universe.
Taittariyabhashya Vartika	6th to 5th century BCE	Shakhachandra Nyaya	To explain one thing, we often use the help of another thing. For instance, to point out the distant moon, we might use the branches of a tree and say that the moon is amidst the branches. Similarly, in Ayurveda, the Adhikarana Siddhanta serves a similar purpose.
Kamandaki Neetisara	belongs to the post-Gupta period or A.D. 8th century	Sundopasunda Nyaya	Sunda and Upasunda are the Asura brothers featured in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Where two friends quarrel with each other to get a thing which was liked by both, this Nyaya is applied.
Bhashapariccheda	1634 AD	Kadambakoraka Nyaya and Veechitaranga Nyaya	By this phenomenon, it is proposed that sound originating from one point doesn’t travel to the listener's ear directly but through a series of origination and destruction.
Prasanna Raghava Nataka	8th to 4th centuries BCE	Kupamanduka Nyaya	One should not have a concise mind. Sushruta also quotes that studying only one Shastra is not enough. We should also know allied sciences to better implement our science.
Panchatantra	4th–6th centuries CE	Pankaprakshalana Nyaya	Panka means mud, and Prakshalana means cleaning. This maxim indicates prevention. After getting wet with mud, one can avoid it instead of cleaning. The stories narrate caution regarding bad things, emphasizing good thoughts.
Saahityakoumudi, Kavyaprakasha, and Saptapadartha	1897 AD Earlier in the 11th century	Suchi Kataha Nyaya	It is described as suggesting that we do easy work first when both easy and difficult work are before us. This Nyaya is used when multiple jobs/activities must be completed, and priority is assigned to them based on the duration of each job.

Many nyaya are mentioned in Dalhana's commentaries on Sushruta Samhita in Nibandhasangraha and Gayadasa's Nyayachandrika. Even Vagbhatacharya in Ashtanga Hridaya and Sangraha quoted various nyayas to establish various concepts.

Method of analyzing a nyaya (maxim)

Analysis can be done in 4 steps:
Step 1: Padartha jnana (meaning): Proper knowledge of the words in nyaya.
Step 2: Prakriya vijnana (phenomenon): Eliciting phenomenon that is implicated in the nyaya.
Step 3: Sandharbha (context): Knowledge of the context in which nyaya is incorporated.
Step 4: Yukti (interpretation): Analysis of padartha jnana, prakriya of nyaya with the sandarbha in samhita.

Classification of maxims (nyayas)

1. Based on their existence, these maxims come under mainly two divisions viz. Nyayas in original verses and Nyayas in commentaries.
   Original verses such as Tilapidaka Nyaya, Babhrugudha Nyaya, Bhuyasa Alpam Avajiyate Nyaya, Pipilika-Bharaharana Nyaya, Utsargapavada Nyaya, Ambujavanasyarkaha Nyaya, Durgruhita Sugruhita Nyaya in Charak Samhita; Chandana-Bhara-Hara Khara Nyaya, Shabda Archi Jala Santanavat Nyaya, Taila Patra Dhara Nyaya and Visha-Krimi Nyaya in Sushrut Samhita; Munja dishikhoddharana Nyaya, Nira ksheera viveka Nyaya and Ratho-vahamano Nyaya in Ashtanga Hridaya.
2. Based on utility or applicability: These nyayas can be categorized. However, nyayas are sagacious, they not only enhance the text or literature but also bring up a scholastic blush to it.

The classification is as follows:

1. Justification for the consecution of subject matter: For example, Adhikarana Nyaya, Kaka Danta Pareeksha Nyaya, Suchikataha Nyaya, Naprushta Guravo Vadanti Iti Nyaya, etc.
2. Justification for the context or Moolashloka: For example, Chhatrinogacchanti Nyaya, Go-Balivarda Nyaya, Shringagrahika Nyaya, Utsarga-Apavada Nyaya, etc.
3. For a better understanding of the subject matter-
• Philosophical aspect: Kadamb mukul nyaya, vichitarang nyaya, shilaputrik nyaya, andha-pangu nyaya, shatapatravedhini nyaya, utpalashatapatra-vedhini nyaya, alatachakradarshana nyaya, pinda-brahmanda nyaya etc.
• Physiological aspect: Ksheeradadhi nyaya, kedarikulya nyaya, khalekapota nyaya, ksheeradadhi nyaya, bhuyasa alpam avajiyate nyaya, dhalvaplavana nyaya, Shabda archi jala santanavat nyaya, visha-krimi nyaya, sthalaplavana nyaya etc.
• Pathogenesis of diseases: Nava ghata panka nyaya, parisroto nyaya, etc.
4. To emphasize the importance of certain basic principles of ayurveda: Such as the Importance of examination of dhatu body constituent (dhatu saara pariksha)- pipeelika bharaharana nyaya
   Importance of tantrayukti jnana- ambujavanasyarkaha nyaya
   Importance of samskara vishesha- prakriti vikriti guna nyaya
5. To explore the concealed subject matter: For example, simhavalokana nyaya, ashmashastra nyaya, abhinava-mrut- kumbha-jala lava syadana nyaya, etc.
6. For the differential diagnosis and helping in specific indicated wholesome protocol (pathya-palana): For example, shringagrahika nyaya
7. For the determination of the encrypted quantity of an ingredient in compound preparation: Such as kapinjaladhikarana nyaya, prakshepa nyaya, samanya-vishesha nyaya, Dravyadashagunam kshetramiti nyaya, sanhita jnanapravaha iti nyaya etc.
8. Successful implementation of therapeutic procedures: such as kakakshigolaka nyaya
9. In the field of research:
   Such as kaka danta pareeksha nyaya, naprushtaguravovadanti iti nyaya
10. Others or miscellaneous:
    Ghunakshara nyaya, kakataliya nyaya, babhrurguda nyaya, tilapidaka nyaya
11. Useful for even medicinal preparations, rules and regulations about diet, and ethical clinical practice. Maxims like shrunga grahika nyaya, gobalivardhana nyaya, kapinjaladhikarana nyaya, abhinava-mrut kumbha-jala- lava-syandana nyaya, utsarga apavada nyaya, dhatu poshana nyaya, tailapatradhara nyaya, etc. found useful in understanding cause, pathology, curability of the disease.

Important nyaya related to metabolism

1. Kedarkulya nyaya-
   This is the first and most important nyaya to explain the theory of the metabolism of ingested food (ahara rasa). Kedara means area or field and kulya means patha. Just as the crops in the field are watered by looking at various paths or paths, the dhatu in our bodies are nourished. The main source of water in the field is the field well. The water from that well is pulled up by pulling oxen to the mote or by installing an engine on the well and then the water goes to the crops in the field through a tap or dam. The water first goes to the paths of the crop which is near the engine and nourishes the crop in it. In this way, all the crops in the field are nourished by having water one after the other. In this method, the closest relative is fed first. The one who is in the middle, after him, and the one who is the very last, is nourished last of all. It means that not all are nourished at all and besides this water goes to each place sequentially. You get to see two such things. The same happens in our body.
   

   Rasa dhatu is the closest and first dhatu to the alimentary canal expelled through the heart. Ahara rasa is first carried to this rasa, where it nourishes the rasa dhatu. It then moves to the blood vessel and nourishes it. Then it goes to mansa, meda, asthi, majja, and shukra dhatu to nourish them. As the shukra dhatu is at the end of this line, the alimentary canal reaches it last and thus the shukradhatu is nourished last. That is, the first dhatu in this sequence withdraws its element first. Then there was the second, and then the third, and so on, the last dhatu taking its nutrients from the remainder.
   That is, in this method of nutrition, dhatus are fed according to their queue (like Queue). This method is called 'Kedarkulyanaya'. Therefore, the nutrient is delivered to all the dhatus at once, (i.e., utpala patra shatpatra suchimev); But structurally these dhatus are far apart. Ahara rasa comes to each dhatu at the same time though reaching, they do the act of taking this rasa from their source and their nourishment as they will. They have such freedom and therefore the time required for each dhatuposhana is not the same. Nourishment of ras dhatu (rasa pushti) happens first means fast. Nourishment of rakta dhatu (rakta Pushti) takes a longer time. Shukra dhatu takes the longest time to absorb that rasa into its source (srotas) and enrich its elements. This makes this nutrition distant in terms of time, that is all.

2. Kshira dadhi nyaya or kramaparinama paksha:
   By burning the milk and mixing it with digestive acid (sour food content), it becomes curd over a period. This curd is affected by the slow ritual fire, and its impurities are removed, and the most pleasant essence is formed. That is, milk takes the form of ghee after frequent digestion and separation. In this way, rasa dhatu gets digested in this body, the faces on it are removed, and this rasa dhatu gets more essence and prasada bhuta form of shukra. That means shukra is in rasa dhatu. There is, but this rasa must go through various digestions to express it.
3. Khalekapota nyaya:
   Many pigeons gather at the granary to eat grain and after eating there, they go in different directions. Their routes to the nests are different. Also, their residences are far or near.
   Just like birds that live nearby reach their destination faster than those living far away, different parts of our bodies get nourished at different speeds. This is similar to how our body processes nutrients from food. Our food contains nutrients for all parts of the body, but each part gets nourished differently. This is because the sources that produce these body parts are separate, and they only produce specific parts. So, the nutrients for one body part don't interfere with others.
   As these nutrients travel from their sources to different body parts, they take different amounts of time to reach each part. For example, it takes longer to nourish blood (rakta) than the initial tissue (rasa), and even longer to nourish muscle (mansa) than blood, and so on. The nutrients for the reproductive tissue (shukra) take the longest time to reach because their sources are far away. On the other hand, the initial tissue gets nourished quickly because its sources are close. This process of nutrient distribution is called Khalekapota nyaya.
   In the dhatuposhana order, there are three main views or parties: Kedarkulya nyaya, Kshiradadhi nyaya, and Khalekpota nyaya. All three believe that the body's tissues (dhatus) can be nourished. However, they have different opinions on some matters.
   For example, if the rasa dhatu becomes unhealthy due to eating the wrong foods, it could affect the quality of all the following dhatus made from it. According to Kshiradadhinayaya, when all dhatus eventually turn into the Shukra dhatu, problems in the initial dhatu can lead to issues in the garbha. On the other hand, Khalekpota nyaya suggests that only the specific dhatu affected by bad food will suffer, while others remain healthy.
   There are illnesses like jwara, pandu, prameha, rajykshma, and kushtha vyadhis where food plays a big role. These illnesses can affect the whole body because all tissues and their sources are interconnected. Fixing dietary issues is like treating the root cause of the disease. By removing harmful substances from the initial tissue, the other dhatus formed from it can also benefit.
   This understanding is also applied in medicine. If a particular dhatu deteriorates due to wrong eating habits, only that specific area is affected, as Khalekpotanyaya suggests. Also, according to this view, certain foods like Pimpli, Ringani, Jyeshtamadha, and Behada may only affect the throat area, making them useful for throat-related issues, known as 'Kanthya'. Overall, these three viewpoints help us understand how the body works, how diseases develop, and how to treat them.

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